INSECTS 


INJURJ 
THE  HO 


OUS  TO 
USEHOLD 


BY 

GLENN  W.  HERR1CK 


The  RurarScieffce  Ser ie  s  I 

LH,  Bailey  Editor 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


TTbe  TRural  Science  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


Efje  i&urai  Science  Series 

THE  SOIL.     King. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.     Lodeman. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.    Wing.   Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.     Roberts. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING.     Bailey. 

BUSH-FRUITS.     Card. 

FERTILIZERS.     Voorhees. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.  Bailey.   15th  Edition, 

Revised. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.     Xing. 
THE  FARMSTEAD.     Roberts. 
RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.     Fairchild. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.   Bailey. 
FARM  POULTRY.    Watson.    Enlarged  and  Revised. 
THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.     Jordan. 
THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.     Roberts. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS.     Mayo. 
THE  HORSE.     Roberts. 
How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM.     Hunt. 
FORAGE  CROPS.     Voorhees. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.     Lipman. 
THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     Bailey. 
PLANT-BREEDING.     Bailey.     4th  Edition,  Revised. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     Bailey. 
THE  PRUNING-BOOK.     Bailey. 

FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS.   Paddock  and  Whipple. 
RURAL  HYGIENE.     Ogden. 
DRY-FARMING.     Widtsoe. 
LAW  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.     Green. 
FARM  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.     McKeever. 
THE  TRAINING  AND  BREAKING  OF  HORSES.     Harper. 
SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.     Craig. 
COOPERATION  IN  AGRICULTURE.     Powell. 
THE  FARM  WOODLOT.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS.     Herrick. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS 
TO   THE    HOUSEHOLD   AND 

ANNOYING  TO  MAN 


BY 


GLENN    W.    HERRICK 

PROFESSOR  OF  ECONOMIC  ENTOMOLOGY  IN  THE  NEW  YORK 

STATE    COLLEGE    OF   AGRICULTURE   AT 

CORNELL   UNIVERSITY 


Nefa  gorfe 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1914 

AU  right*  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914, 
BT  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  October,  1914. 


XottoooH  ISrtss 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


lture 


INTRODUCTION 

SOME  one  has  remarked  in  a  rather  facetious  vein 
that,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  the  present  age  may 
be  called  the  age  of  insects.  On  second  thought,  the 
remark  holds  more  reason  than  might  appear  at  first 
sight.  We  are  especially  impressed  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  relation  to  man  of  these  tiny,  but  multitu- 
dinous, forms  of  life  when  we  recall  that  the  species  of 
insects  outnumber  the  species  of  all  other  animals  com- 
bined ;  that  the  insect  pests  in  this  country  alone  cause 
a  loss  of  over  a  billion  dollars  annually  ;  that  several 
hundred  trained  men  in  the  United  States  are  giving 
their  entire  time  to  a  study  of  these  pests  ;  and  that 
thousands  of  letters  are  sent  each  year  to  our  govern- 
ment agencies,  requesting  information  regarding  insects 
and  means  of  fighting  them.  Until  within  the  last  few 
years  the  economic  importance  of  insects  has  been  at- 
tributed to  their  indirect  injuries  to  man  through  attacks 
on  the  things  that  he  produces.  Suddenly,  almost 
within  the  last  decade,  insects  have  assumed  an  entirely 
new  and  exceedingly  important  significance  through 
knowledge  of  their  direct  injuries  to  man  himself. 

Since  the  epoch-making  discoveries  were  made  that 
mosquitoes  carry  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  insects,  es- 
pecially those  frequenting  the  household,  have  assumed 
a  most  unexpected  importance.  The  hum  of  the  mos- 
quito and  the  buzz  of  the  house-fly  have  become  fraught 
with  an  entirely  new  significance.  Even  the  dog  and 


833185 


Vi  INTRODUCTION 

• 

the  cat,  with  their  burdens  of  fleas,  have  taken  on  a  new 
aspect  and  appeal  to  us  from  an  entirely  new  viewpoint. 
The  kitchen  drain,  the  open  cesspool  and  closet,  the 
barnyard  manure  pile,  the  horse  stable,  and  the  hog 
pen  present  entirely  new  problems  to  the  occupants  of 
the  farm  home  through  the  insects  that  originate  in 
them.  One  neglected  manure  pile  can  furnish  enough 
house-flies  to  overrun  several  households  all  the  summer 
through.  An  open  kitchen  drain  can  afford  breeding- 
places  for  enough  mosquitoes  to  change  pleasant  summer 
evenings  into  hours  of  torment  and  displeasure. 

The  present  work  is  not  intended  as  a  treatise  on  the 
relation  of  insects  to  disease.  The  author's  colleagues 
are  now  at  work  on  a  thorough  and  extended  discussion 
of  that  phase  of  the  subject.  In  the  following  pages, 
the  writer  devotes  the  principal  part  of  the  discussion 
to  the  habits,  injuries,  and  control  of  insects  simply  as 
pests  of  the  household  and  of  man,  contenting  himself 
with  a  brief  summary  of  the  relation  of  insects  to 
disease.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  so  brief  a 
work  will  include  all  of  the  insect  pests  that  may  invade 
the  household  ;  but  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  discuss, 
at  least,  the  most  important  ones  with  which  our  present 
knowledge  makes  us  more  or  less  familiar. 

The  erroneous  ideas  and  unnecessary  fears  prevalent 
regarding  the  poisonous  nature  of  certain  insects  and 
their  near  relatives  and  the  interest  evinced  in  this 
matter  have  seemed  to  warrant  the  addition  of  a  chapter 
on  this  subject.  In  this  discussion,  the  author  has  at- 
tempted to  state  the  simple  truth  and  to  clear  away,  as 
far  as  existing  knowledge  makes  it  possible,  the  hazy 
and  almost  superstitious  notions  regarding  the  venomous 
qualities  of  these  small  animals. 


INTRODUCTION  vii 

The  book  has  been  written  particularly  for  the  house- 
keeper and  for  those  who  desire  to  obtain  information 
regarding  household  pests  and  practical  methods  of 
controlling  them.  As  few  technical  terms  as  possible 
have  been  used.  .  Nevertheless,  painstaking  efforts  have 
been  made  toward  accuracy  of  statement.  To  make  the 
work  of  value  to  the  student,  references  to  literature 
have  been  given  and  the  lack  of  knowledge  regarding 
the  life  histories  and  habits  of  many  of  these  common 
pests  has  been  pointed  out  with  the  hope  of  stimulating 
investigation.  The  author  has  drawn  freely  on  all 
available  sources  of  information  and  has  often  quoted 
extensively  from  various  writers. 

Most  of  the  illustrations  are  original.  They  have 
been  drawn  from  actual  specimens  principally  by 
Miss  Anna  C.  Stryke,  Miss  Catherine  Kephart,  and 
Mr.  John  Eyer.  To  these  the  author  is  greatly  in- 
debted for  their  careful  and  accurate  delineation. 
Whenever  it  has  seemed  more  advantageous,  figures 
have  been  copied  from  various  sources  but  full  credit 
has  always  been  given.  The  writer  is  also  under  deep 
obligation  to  his  wife,  Nannie  B.  Herrick,  who  has  read 
the  manuscript  and  proof  and  has  made  many  helpful 
suggestions  and  constructive  criticisms. 

GLENN  W.  HERRICK. 
ITHACA,  NEW  YORK. 


CONTENTS 


:HAPTEK  PAGES 

I.    THE  HOUSE-FLY 1-34 

II.      FLIES,     OTHER     THAN.  THE     HOUSE-FLY,     THAT 

FREQUENT   HOUSES 35-53 

III.  MOSQUITOES,    THEIR    HABITS    AND     DISEASE 

RELATIONS 54-83 

IV.  METHODS    OF     DESTROYING    AND     REPELLING 

MOSQUITOES 84-107 

V.     THE  COMMON  BEDBUG 108-123 

VI.    COCKROACHES 124-143 

VII.     FLEAS 144-163 

VIII.     ANTS,   THEIR   ACTIVITIES   AND  INVASIONS  OF 

THE  HOUSEHOLD 164-188 

IX.  INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   CLOTHES    AND    CAR- 

PETS            189-226 

X.  INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS    AND    PRE- 

SERVED FRUITS 227-271 

XI.  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS,  CHEESE,  AND 

CONDIMENTS 272-299 

XII.    SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES 300-316 

XIII.  SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN       .        .        .  317-346 

XIV.  SOME  TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  OF  THE  HOUSE- 

HOLD          347-385 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEE  PAGES 

XV.    SOME    WOOD-BORING     INSECTS    AND     THEIR 

RELATIVES 386-397 

XVI.    POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES    .    398-440 
XVII.    THE    USE    OF    GASES    AGAINST    HOUSEHOLD 

INSECTS 441-461 

INDEX  .    463-470 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGUBE  PAOB 

1.  The  adult  house-fly.     ( x  5.)     . 1 

2.  Maggot  of  house-fly.     (  x  3£.) 4 

3.  Puparium  of  house-fly.     ( x  5.) 5 

4.  Foot  of  house-fly,  showing  pulvilli,  enlarged    ...  7 

5.  Plate  of  gelatine,  showing  colonies  of  bacteria  in  foot- 

prints of  fly.     (x  1.)     After  Underwood  .         .         .         8 

6.  Head  and  proboscis  of  house-fly.     (  x  20.)        ...        9 

7.  Bin  for  holding  manure.     After  Herms    ....       22 

8.  Hodge's  trap  for  garbage  can.     After  Howard         .        .      25 

9.  A  large  fly  trap.     After  Bull '26 

10.  End  of  trap,  showing  hooks.     After  Bull         ...       27 

11.  Cross-section  of  trap.     After  Bull 27 

12.  Wing  of  the  lesser  house-fly.     (  x  10.)      ....      36 

13.  Wing  of  house-fly.     (  x  10.) 36 

14.  Wing  of  stable-fly  (Muscina  stabulans).     (x8.)       .         .       37 

15.  The  cluster-fly.     ( x  2£.) 39 

16.  Head  and  proboscis  of  the  biting  house-fly.     (  x  8.)        .      42 

17.  Biting  house-fly  (Stomoxys  calcitrans).     (x3^.)       .         .       42 

18.  The  stable-fly  (Muscina  slabulans) .     ( x  3.)     .        .        .46 

19.  The  blow-fly.     ( x  2.) 49 

20.  Life  history  of  a  house  mosquito.    (  x  3.)    After  Howard      56 

21.  Egg  mass  of  the  house  mosquito,     (x  5.)        .        .        .      57 

22.  Pupa  of  Culex,  enlarged .58 

23.  Head  of  female,  left;  male,  right,     (x  8.)       .        .        .59 

24.  Anopheles  quadrimaculatus .     (x7.)  .         .         .         .61 

25.  Larva  of  Anopheles  punctipennis,  enlarged          ...       62 

26.  Anopheles  punctipennis.     ( X  7.)          .        •         .         .         .64 

27.  Head  of  female  Culex,  left;   female  Anopheles,  right. 

(x  8.) 65 

xi 


Xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGTTBK  PAGE 

28.  The  yellow  fever  mosquito.     ( x  7.)         .        .        .        .67 

29.  Trichinella  spiralis  embedded  in   human  muscle,  much 

enlarged 73 

30.  Roach  or  golden  shiner.     After  Jordan    ....  87 

31.  Top-minnow.     ( x  1|.)    After  Jordan  and  Evermann    .  88 

32.  Spraying  a  ditch  for  mosquitoes  with  a  knapsack  sprayer  91 

33.  Screen  covering  whole  window 99 

34.  Screen  over  lower  half  of  window 99 

35.  Under  side  of  head  of  bedbug  showing  the  beak,  enlarged  109 

36.  Nymph  of  a  species  of  Aradus,  much  enlarged         .         .116 

37.  Egg-case  of  croton-bug.     ( x  3.)       .        .        .        .        .  132 

38.  American  cockroach.     ( x  1.) 135 

39.  Oriental  cockroach.     ( x  f .) 136 

40.  Australian  roach,     (x  1J.) 137 

41.  Cross-section  of  a  roach  trap     .        ...        .        .        .  140 

42.  Tin  box  trap  for  roaches 140 

43.  Human  flea,  much  enlarged 147 

44.  Cat  and  dog  flea,  much  enlarged 147 

45.  Egg  of  flea.     ( x  38.) 150 

46.  Larva  of  a  flea,  above;  cocoon,  below,  much  enlarged. 

After  Howard 151 

47.  Interior  of  an  ant's  nest.     From  Wheeler's  "  Ants "         .  167 

48.  The  red  ant.     ( x  20.) 174 

49.  The  small  black  ant.     ( x  14.)  .        .        .        .        .        .176 

50.  The  large  black  carpenter  ant,  enlarged  ....  178 

51.  The  queen  Argentine  ant,  enlarged.      After  Woodworth  183 

52.  Case-making  clothes  moth.     ( x  4.)          .        .   •     .        .192 

53.  Case  of  the  case-making  clothes  moth     ( x  3.)         .         .  193 

54.  Webbing  clothes  moth.     (x4.) 195 

55.  Egg  of  the  webbing  clothes  moth.     (  x  25.)     .         .         .196 

56.  Larva  of  the  webbing  clothes  moth,    (x  6.)     .        .        .  197 

57.  Tapestry  moth.     (x3.) 197 

58.  The  "Buffalo  bug"  (carpet  beetle).     (x9.)    .        .        .  204 

59.  A  common  lady-bird.     ( x  13.) 205 

60.  Cast  skin  of  larva  of  "Buffalo  moth."     (  x  6.)         .        .  206 

61.  Black  carpet  beetle.     ( x  9.) 210 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

62.  Larva  of  the  black  carpet  beetle.     ( x  5.)          .        .        .  211 

63.  Pupa  of  the  black  carpet  beetle,  dorsal  and  ventral  view. 

(x  9.) 212 

64.  The  fish-moth.     ( x  2.) 215 

65.  The  domestic  fish-moth.     (xl£.)     After  Marlatt  .        .  219 

66.  The  domestic  cricket,     (xlj.)     After  Marlatt.      .        .  224 

67.  The  Cadelle.     ( x  4.) 232 

68.  Larva  of  the  Cadelle.     (  x  3.) 233 

69.  Section  of  bin  showing  holes  in  the  wood  made  by  the 

larva  of  the  Cadelle 234 

70.  The  saw-toothed  grain-beetle.     (  x  20.)    ....  237 

71.  Larva  of  saw-toothed  grain-beetle,  enlarged     .         .         .  237 

72.  The  Angoumois  grain-moth.     ( x  3.)        .         .         .         .  239 

73.  Ear  of  popcorn  infested  with  larvae  of  the  Angoumois 

grain-moth 240 

74.  Egg  of  Angoumois  grain-moth,  enlarged  ....  240 

75.  Larva  of  Angoumois  grain-moth,  enlarged       .         .         .  241 

76.  Pupa  of  the  Angoumois  grain-moth,  enlarged           .         .  241 

77.  The  confused  flour-beetle.     ( x  12.)          ....  248 

78.  Larva  of  the  Indian-meal  moth,  enlarged         .         .        .  254 

79.  The  meal  snout-moth  and  larva.     (  x  2£.)       .        .        .  257 
80. '  The  granary  weevil.     (  x  17.) 259 

81.  The  rice  weevil.     (  x  7.) 261 

82.  Larva  of  the  rice  weevil.     (  x  10.) 262 

83.  Pupa  of  the  rice  weevil.     (  x  10.) 263 

84.  A  fruit-fly  (D.  ampelophila).     ( x  10.)      .         .         .         .265 

85.  Pupa  of  a  fruit-fly,  enlarged 266 

86.  Bean  weevil.     (x8.) 270 

87.  Larder  beetle.     ( x  4.) 273 

88.  Larva  of  the  larder  beetle.     (  x  3.) 274 

89.  Red-legged  ham  beetle.     ( x  8.) 277 

90.  Larva  of  the  red-legged  ham  beetle,  enlarged  .         .         .  278 

91.  A   common   cheese  mite   (T.  lonyior).     (x  60.)     After 

Canestrini 281 

92.  Hypopus  of  cheese  mite,  much  enlarged.     After  Banks  282 

93.  A  cheese  mite  (T.farince).     (x  80.)     After  Banks        .  284 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

94.  Sugar  mite  (G.  robustus).     (x50.)     After  Banks          .  286 

95.  Tarsi  I,  IV,  and  hairs,  h,  from    T.  longior,  enlarged. 

After  Banks 287 

96.  The  parent  fly  of  a  cheese  skipper.     (x9.)    .        .        .  288 

97.  Cheese  skipper,  maggot  of  P.  casei.     ( x  5.)  .         .        .  290 

98.  Pupa  of  cheese  skipper,  enlarged 290 

99.  Cigarette  beetle.     ( x  20.) 293 

100.  Larva  of  cigarette  beetle.     (  x  20.)         .        .        .        .294 

101.  Drug-store  beetle.     ( x  24.) 295 

102.  Larva  of  drug-store  beetle.     ( x  20.)       ....  297 

103.  Itch  mite,  female.     ( x  85.) 302 

104.  Itch  mite,  male.     ( x  125.) 303 

105.  Burrows  of  the  itch  mite  beneath  the  skin,  diagrammatic  304 

106.  Head  louse.     ( x  13.) 310 

107.  Body*  louse.     ( x  20.) 312 

108.  Crab  louse.     ( x  20.) 314 

109.  Adult  of  harvest  mite  (T.  holosericeum).    (  x  20.)    After 

Railliet 318 

110.  Young  of  harvest  mite.     ( x  60.)     After  Railliet          .  321 

111.  Yellow-jacket.     ( x  3.) 326 

112.  Bald-faced  hornet,     (x  2£.) 326 

113.  A  punkie  (C.  stellifer),  enlarged.     After  Pratt       .         .  331 

114.  A  punkie  (C.  guttipennis),  enlarged.     After  Pratt         .  332 

115.  Larva  and  pupa  of  a  punkie  (C.  guttipennis),  enlarged  . 

After  Pratt         .                333 

116.  A  black-fly  (S. pictipes).     (x  10.) 341 

117.  Larva  of  the  black-fly  (S.  pictipes).     (  x  3.)  .        .        .  342 

118.  Pupa  of  a  black-fly  (S.  pictipes).     (x6.)'       .        .        .343 

119.  The  female  mite,  much  enlarged.     After  Banks    .         .  349 

120.  The  female  mite  when  full  of  eggs,  enlarged.     After 

Banks 350 

121.  The  male  mite,  enlarged.     After  Banks          .         .         .351 

122.  The  clover  mite,  adult,  enlarged.     After  Marlatt  .         .  353 

123.  A  young  clover  mite,  enlarged.     After  Marlatt      .         .  354 

124.  The  house  centipede,     (x  1.)          .        .        .        ...  357 

125.  A  scorpion,     (xf.) 361 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 


PAGE 

126.  A  queen  termite,     (xl.)        ......  365 

127.  A  soldier  termite.     (  x  13.)     ......  366 

128.  Winged  male  termite,  enlarged       .....  367 

129.  A  worker  termite.     (  x  9.)      ......  368 

130.  The  American  spring-tail,  enlarged.     After  Marlatt     .  378 

131.  The  American  spring-tail,  under  side  of  the  body,  en- 

larged.    After  Marlatt     ......  378 

132.  The  common  book  -louse,  enlarged  ....  380 

133.  A  powder-post  beetle  (Z.  linear  is),  enlarged  .         .         .  387 

134.  The  death-watch  beetle,  enlarged    .....  389 

135.  The  white-marked  spider-beetle,  enlarged      .         .         .  393 

136.  Chelicera  of  a  spider  ;  p,  poison  gland  ;  d,  duct;  0,  open- 

ing at  tip  of  fang  ;  /,  fang,  enlarged         .         .         .     399 

137.  Hour-glass  spider,  dorsal  view.     (  x  2|.)         .         .         .     403 

138.  Hour-glass  spider,  ventral  view.      (x4£.)  .       ..     404 

139.  The  southern  cattle-tick.     (  x  4£.)  .....     407 

140.  A  solpugid.     After  Putnam     ......     409 

141.  Centipede  from  Texas,  much  reduced     ....     412 

142.  A  dragon-fly.     (  x  1.)      .......    415 

143.  An  earwig.     (x2.)          .......     416 

144.  An  electric  light  bug  (Belostoma)  .     (xl.)    .        .        .    417 

145.  The  cannibal  bug  (R.  personatus).     (  x  2.)    .        .         .    419 

146.  The  blood-sucking  cone-nose.     (  x  3.)    .        .        .        .423 

147.  Screw  worm  fly.     (  x  3^.)         .        .        ...        .        .425 

148.  The  buck  moth  (H.maia).     (xl.)        .        .        .        .429 

149.  Eggs  of  the  buck  moth,     (xl.)     •        •        •  .430 

150.  Poisonous  hairs   (P)  and  ordinary  hairs  (R)  of  the 

brown-tail  moth  caterpillars     .....     434 

151.  Materials  used  in  fumigation          .   •     .        .        .        .    444 

152.  A  room  "  strung  "  for  fumigation  .....    446 


LIST   OF  PLATES 

FACING   PAGE 

Plate  I.  Eggs  of  house-fly,  above  (  x  4),  Photo,  by  Knight ; 

properly  screened  porch  below,  Photo,  by  MacGillivray  .  30 

Plate  II.  Cockroach,  croton-bug  with  egg-case  (  x  1)  ;  trap 
for  cockroaches,  Photos,  by  Slingerland ;  bedbug,  below, 
much  enlarged,  Photo,  by  author 110 

Plate  III.  Beetle  of  darker  meal-worm  ( x  3) ;  and  pupa 
(  x  2£) ;  pupae  and  larva  of  meal-worm  (  x  1),  Photos, 
by  Knight;  yeast  cake  injured  by  drug-store  beetle, 
Photo,  by  author 228 

Plate  IV.  Indian-meal  moth  above,  enlarged  by  Bishop; 
Mediterranean  flour-moth  (  x  3)  by  Bishop ;  eggs  (  x  5) 
and  pupae  of  Mediterranean  flour-moth,  Photos,  by  K  night  244 

Plate  V.  Blisters  on  leg  caused  by  redbugs,  enlarged,  Photo. 

by  Bradley 322 

Plate  VI.  Book  injured  by  termites,  above,  Photo,  by  author ; 

nest  of  termites  in  South  Africa,  below,  Photo,  by  Gunn  364 

Plate  VII.  Tarantula,  above,  Photo,  by  Crosby ;  chicken 
ticks,  Photo,  by  author;  and  brown-tail  moths, below, 
Photo,  by  Slingerland 402 

Plate  VIII.  Caterpillar  of  buck  moth  above,  Photo,  by  Ilg ; 
saddle-back  caterpillar  in  middle,  Photo,  by  Slingerland ; 
larvae  of  flannel  moth,  Photo,  by  Slingerland ;  and  of  io 
moth,  below,  Photo,  by  Knight 428 


xvii 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  HOUSE-FLY 
Musca  domestica 

THERE  are  no  household  insect  pests  more  annoying, 
on  the  whole,  than  house-flies.  They  are  present  from 
early  spring  to  late  fall, 
even  remaining  far  into  the 
winter.  They  are  trouble- 
some in  kitchens  and  dining- 
rooms  because  of  their  abun- 
dance, their  proneness  to  get 
into  food,  and  their  gener- 
ally filthy  habits.  Until 
within  comparatively  recent 
years  the  house-fly  (Fig.  1) 
has  been  generally  regarded 
as  somewhat  of  a  scavenger 
and  has  been  considered  of 
value  to  humanity  because 
of  its  aid  in  the  removal  of 
wastes  that  are  a  menace  to  human  welfare.  The  eggs 
of  the  house-fly  are  often  deposited  on  decaying  vegetable 


FIG.  1.  —  The  adult  house-fly. 
(X5.) 


2  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

matters  that  are  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  vicinity 
of  human  habitations  and  the  maggots  that  hatch  from 
the  eggs  live  on  this  decaying  matter  and  aid  in  destroy- 
ing it.  Thus  it  must  be  conceded,  perhaps,  that  house- 
flies  do  assist  somewhat  in  the  removal  of  foul  and 
dangerous  waste  matters  and,  to  this  extent,  are  of 
benefit.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  conclusively 
shown  that  this  modicum  of  benefit  is  greatly  over- 
balanced by  their  role  in  disseminating  dangerous  dis- 
eases. It  has  been  shown  that  house-flies  carry  the 
germs  of  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  cholera  infantum,  and 
tropical  dysentery,  on  their  feet,  legs,  and  bodies  and  in 
their  digestive  tracts.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
responsibility  of  the  house-fly  for  much  sickness  and  many 
deaths. 

A  COMMON  SOURCE   OF  HOUSE-FLIES 

In  the  summer  of  1910,  two  large  piles  of  horse  ma- 
nure were  drawn  and  placed  in  a  field  about  twenty  rods 
south  of  the  building  in  which  the  office  of  the  author  is 
located  and  on  the  same  side.  During  the  months  of 
July  and  August  the  flies  were  so  abundant  in  the  build- 
ing and  especially  in  my  office  that  screens  had  to  be 
used  as  a  protection  against  the  dreadful  annoyance  of 
these  pests.  On  investigation,  the  piles  were  found  to  be 
teeming  with  maggots  of  the  house-fly.  In  seven  ounces  of 
the  manure,  taken  from  the  smaller  pile,  458  maggots  of 
various  sizes  were  actually  counted.  Many  of  the  smaller 
ones  must  have  escaped  notice.  The  seven  ounces  of 
manure  was  a  seething  mass  of  maggots,  showing  what 
a  tremendous  number  of  flies  the  two  piles  of  manure 
could  have  furnished  if  they  had  been  equally  infested  all 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  3 

through  the  surface  layers.  Fortunately  they  were  not. 
It  was  only  in  the  moist,  warm  portions  of  the  piles  near 
the  surface  that  maggots  were  present.  But  with  these 
conditions  enough  flies  were  bred  in  the  two  piles  of 
manure  to  stock  the  rooms  of  a  very  large  building. 

Apropos  of  the  possibilities  of  manure  in  the  produc- 
tion of  house-flies,  L.  O.  Howard  gives  even  more 
surprising  figures.  He  took  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
horse  manure,  well  infested,  and  found  within  it  160 
maggots  and  146  puparia  which  would  produce  about 
1200  flies  to  a  pound  of  manure. 

Again,  during  September,  the  manure  that  had  been 
allowed  to  accumulate  for  several  months  was  removed 
from  a  certain  large  cowshed  at  the  old  University  barns. 
The  wagons  were  backed  under  the  shed  and  loaded. 
When  drawn  out  they  had  to  pass  over  a  plank  twelve 
inches  wide  that  served  as  a  threshold  of  the  double 
doors.  After  the  work  had  been  going  on  some  time, 
W.  A.  Riley  gathered  the  puparia  that  had  accumu- 
lated on  one  square  foot  of  this  plank.  By  weighing  the 
whole  mass  and  a  known  number  of  the  puparia,  he  was 
able  to  determine  that  the  square  foot  of  surface  had 
yielded  7000  puparia.  In  a  subsequent  examination,  the 
plank  was  found,  for  its  whole  length,  black  with  them, 
and  the  remaining  manure  on  the  floor  of  the  shed  was 
full  of  the  dark  brown  puparia. 


THE   LIFE   HISTORY   OF  THE   HOUSE-FLY 

The  house-fly,  like  its  remote  cousin,  the  mosquito,  has 
four  distinct  stages  in  its  life  history,  egg,  larva  or  "  mag- 
got," pupa,  and  adult.  The  house-fly,  in  all  of  its  phases 


4  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

and  instincts,  seems  to  be  a  lover  of  filth.  Its  eggs  are 
usually  laid  in  manure,  preferably  in  horse  manure,  at 
least  whenever  this  medium  can  be  found.  Sometimes 
they  are  laid  on  cow  manure  and  often  on  human  excre- 
ment, especially  in  open  closets,  and  on  other  decaying 
animal  and  vegetable  material.  A  female  fly  may  deposit 
120  to  150  eggs  at  a  time  and  as  she  has  been  observed 
to  make  four  deposits  we  must  conclude  that  a  single 
fly  is  capable  of  laying  at  least  600  eggs.  This  will  account, 
in  a  measure,  for  the  enormous  number  of  these  insects. 

The  egg  is  a  small,  white  object  about  one-twentieth 
of  an  inch  long  and  resembles  in  shape  a  grain  of  wheat, 
except  that   it   is  more   pointed. 
They   are    laid    more   or   less   in 
clusters  (Plate  I)  and  hatch  in  from 

FIG.  2. -Maggot  of  house-  eight  to  twenty-four  hours  or 
fly.  (x3i)  longer,  depending  on  the  tem- 

perature. 

The  maggot  is  whitish  in  color,  pointed  at  the  head  end, 
blunt  at  the  opposite  end  and  about  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  length  when  mature  (Fig.  2).  It  is  quite  active  and 
can  crawl  with  considerable  facility.  It  grows  rapidly, 
molts  three  times,1  and  reaches  maturity  in  five  to  seven 
days  under  favorable  conditions.  With  the  third  and 
.last  molt  the  larva  transforms  to  a  pupa. 

The  pupa  is  inclosed  in  the  last  cast  skin  of  the  maggot. 
This  skin  soon  turns  dark  brown  and  becomes  hard  and 
dry,  thus  affording  a  protective  case  for  the  pupa,  known 
as  a  puparium  (Fig.  3).  The  pupa  rests  quietly  for  five 
to  seven  days  or  longer,  at  the  end  of  which  time  its 
enveloping  case  breaks  open  and  the  adult  fly  comes  forth. 
1  If  the  casting  of  the  last  skin  that  serves  as  a  puparium  is  counted. 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  5 

Our  observations  indicate  that  house-flies  frequently 
pass  the  winter  in  the  pupal  stage.  We  are  also  of  the 
opinion  that  adult  flies  are  able  to  survive  the  winter. 

The  length  of  time  required  for  a  generation  of  flies  to 
mature  varies  and  will  depend  upon  the  temperature, 
amount  of  food  available,  and  other  factors.  For  example, 
in  Massachusetts,  it  may  take  about  fourteen  days  for 
a  generation  of  flies  to  mature,  while  in  the  latitude  of 
Washington,  D.C.,  ten  days  may  be  sufficient.  But 
it  takes  the  flies  several  days  after  they  issue  to  become 
sexually  mature  and  ready  to  lay  eggs.  In  Massachu- 
setts, then,  there  might  be  time, 
during  a  favorable  season,  for  seven 
or  eight  complete  generations,  while 
in  the  latitude  of  Washington  there 
would  be  time  for  ten  or  twelve  Fl°-  3-  —  Puparium  of 

,.  n  i_      ji  r  house-fly.     (X  5.) 

generations.  One  can  hardly  realize 
the  enormous  numbers  that  such  rapid  development  is 
capable  of  producing.  Inside  of  two  months,  one  female 
fly  can  give  rise  to  many  millions  of  progeny.  For  the 
purpose  of  illustration,  we  will  assume  that  a  female  fly 
lays  100  eggs.  If  these  hatch  and  all  the  larvae  come  to 
maturity,  about  one-half  will  probably  be  males  and  the 
other  half  females.  Then  at  the  end  of  the  first  genera- 
tion there  will  be  fifty  egg-laying  females.  At  this  rate, 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  generation  there  would  be  pro- 
duced about  1,875,000,000,000  adults.  Of  course,  in 
nature,  a  very  large  part  of  these  would  die  and  never 
reach  maturity,  so  that  actually  one  female  would  prob- 
ably never  produce  such  an  enormous  number  of 
individuals.  However,  under  normal  conditions  tre- 
mendous numbers  are  produced. 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


BREEDING   PLACES   FOR   FLIES 

Without  doubt,  house-flies  prefer  piles  of  horse  manure 
whenever  these  can  be  found.  This  has  been  shown  by 
many  observers.  Next  to  horse  manure,  flies  apparently 
prefer  human  excrement.  At  least,  open  closets  in  the 
back  streets  of  cities  have  been  shown  to  be  one  of  the 
main  sources  of  house-flies  in  such  localities,  especially 
in  those  regions  in  which  there  are  few  or  no  horse  stables. 
Moreover,  Howard  has  shown  that  the  larvae  of  house- 
flies  are  often  found  in  chance  droppings  of  human  feces 
in  back  allies,  yards,  and  so  on.  We  would  emphasize 
the  fact  that  the  most  dangerous  breeding  places  for 
flies  are  in  open  closets;  for  in  these  places  the  germs 
of  typhoid  fever,  dysentery,  and  other  enteric  diseases 
are  present  in  great  abundance. 

House-flies  will  also  breed  in  cow  manure  especially 
when  moist  enough.  Piles  of  stable  manure  containing 
rotting  straw  or  barnyard  refuse  are  favorable  breeding 
places.  Manure,  bedding,  and  filth  of  pig-pens  breed 
large  numbers  of  flies ;  even  the  refuse  of  poultry  houses, 
if  composed  in  considerable  part  of  rotting  bedding,  may 
contain  maggots.  The  decaying  and  fermenting  garbage 
from  kitchens,  if  allowed  to  stand  long  enough  in  barrels 
or  cans,  may  become  breeding  places  for  flies,  although  it 
would  seem  that  the  stable  fly,  Muscina  stabulans,  is  the 
more  common  fly  in  such  situations. 

Forbes'  assistants  bred  267  house-flies  from  carrion  in 
the  streets,  which  runs  contrary  to  former  ideas  concern- 
ing carrion  and  house-flies.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say 
that  house-flies  will  breed  in  almost  any  vegetable 
matter  that  lies  long  enough  to  ferment  and  decay. 


THE  HOUSE-FLY 


THE  ADULT   FLY 

The  adult  fly  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length 
and  has  two  thin  membranous  wings,  the  fifth  longitudinal 
veins  of  which  turn  abruptly  upward  near  the  ends  (Fig. 
1).  The  dorsal  side  of  the  thorax  is  dusty  gray  in 
color  and  has  four  dark,  longitudinal 
stripes.  The  legs  and  the  body  are 
covered  with  many  hairs  and  bristles, 
among  which  great  quantities  of  germs 
are  easily  entangled  and  carried  from 
place  to  place.  Moreover,  each  one  of 
the  six  feet  is  furnished  with  two 
sticky  pads  called  pulvilli  (Fig.  4). 
Each  pad,  or  pulvillus,  is  thickly  beset 
with  tiny  hairs,  which  secrete  minute 
drops  of  a  sticky  liquid  that  literally 
sticks  the  fly  to  the  ceiling  upon  which 
it  is  walking.  Unfortunately,  these 
sticky  hairs,  in  addition  to  enabling 
the  fly  to  walk  upside  down,  form 
ideal  organs  for  picking  up  all  sorts  of  FIG.  4.  —  Foot  of 
bacteria  from  the  filthy  materials  upon 
which  the  fly  walks.  Thus  we  see  the 
house-fly  is  fitted  in  many  ways  for  gathering  and  carry- 
ing germs.  In  fact,  it  cannot  help  but  gather  bacteria 
from  the  various  things  upon  which  it  alights  and  then 
distribute  them  far  and  wide,  for  it  wipes  its  feet  upon 
everything  it  touches.  The  relation  of  the  fly  to  the 
germs  that  it  carries  is  purely  a  mechanical  one.  It  has 
been  shown  repeatedly  that  house-flies  do  carry  multi- 
tudes of  bacteria.  In  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  plate  of  gelatine 


house-fly,   showing 
pulvilli,  enlarged. 


8 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


over  which  a  fly  was  allowed  to  walk.  In  every  foot- 
print there  is  a  white  colony  of  bacteria  with  millions 
of  individuals. 

Esten  and  Mason  examined  414  flies  from  different 
sources  and  found  that  the  number  of  bacteria  carried 
by. each  one  varied  from  550  to  6,600,000,  with  an  average 


FIG.  5.  —  Plate  of  gelatine,  showing  colonies  of  bacteria  in  footprints 
of  fly.     (X  1.) 

for  each  fly  of  nearly  one  and  one-fourth  millions.  They 
also  found  that  those  flies  caught  in  swill-barrels,  pig-pens, 
and  similar  places  carried  the  most  bacteria  and  the  most 
objectionable  kinds  of  bacteria. 

The  mouth-parts  of  the  house-fly  are  very  complicated 
but,  in  general,  they  constitute  a  short  proboscis  fitted 
for  sucking  but  not  for  piercing.  The  house-fly  cannot 


THE  HOUSE-FLY 


9 


"bite."  The  proboscis  (Fig.  6)  can  be  protruded  and 
retracted  to  a  certain  extent.  Roughly,  the  proboscis 
consists  of  two  parts,  a  part  nearest  the  head  that  bears 
two  short  curved  appendages,  and  a  longer  part  farthest 
from  the  head  that  bears  two  lobe-like  appendages  called 
the  oral  lobes.  Each  lobe  bears 
on  its  under  surface  many  trans- 
verse ridges  called  false  tracheae 
(pseudotrachese) .  These  lobes 
are  rasping  organs.  Each  lobe 
reminds  one  of  an  old-fashioned 
shoe  float  formerly  seen  in  stores 
and  used  for  removing  the  ends 
of  wooden  pegs  that  projected 
through  the  soles  in  the  inside 
of  a  shoe.  When  feeding  on 
fluid  substances  the  fly  simply 
applies  the  oral  lobes  to  the 
material  and  sucks  it  up.  When 
feeding  upon  solid  substances  FIG. 
the  action  is  quite  different.  If 
such  a  substance  as  sugar  is  eaten,  for  example,  it 
is  first  moistened  and  dissolved  by  saliva  from  the 
mouth  of  the  fly  before  it  is  sucked  up.  The  oral 
lobes  also  serve  to  rasp  the  material  and  break  it 
down. 

Graham-Smith  watched  a  fly  sucking  a  mass  of  sputum 
that  had  apparently  dried  and  hardened.  The  insect 
seemed  to  moisten  the  layer  of  sputum  by  sending  out 
saliva  through  its  proboscis  and  sucking  the  fluid  in  and 
out  until  the  layer  was  liquefied  and  could  be  drawn  up 
into  the  mouth. 


•  Head  and  proboscis 
of  house-fly.     (X  20.) 


10  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


HOW   FAR   CAN   THE    ADULT   FLY  ? 

The  question  of  how  far  this  insect  will  fly  from  its 
breeding  place  has  an  important  bearing  upon  methods 
of  fighting  it.  Moreover,  the  area  that  it  can  cover  in 
a  neighborhood  has  an  important  bearing  upon  its  dangers 
as  a  disease-germ-carrying  instrument.  It  is  held  by 
observers,  in  general,  that  house-flies,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, do  not  fly  far.  However,  when  aided  by  winds 
they  may  go  considerable  distances.  Arnold,  of  the 
Monsall  Fever  Hospital  in  Manchester,  captured  300 
flies  and  marked  them  with  a  spot  of  white  enamel  on  the 
back  so  that  he  could  identify  them.  He  liberated  these 
in  fine  weather  and  during  the  next  five  days  captured 
5  out  of  the  300  in  traps,  all  within  30  to  190  yards  from 
the  point  of  liberation.  Hewitt  says  he  has  seen  them 
flying  at  a  height  of  80  feet  and  remarks  that  this  would 
greatly  facilitate  their  carriage  by  winds. 

In  an  experiment  by  Copeman,  Howlett,  and  Merriman, 
three  English  investigators,  on  the  range  of  flight  of  flies, 
they  recovered  marked  specimens  at  distances  varying 
from  400  to  1408  yards  and,  in  one  case  at  least,  at  a 
distance  of  1700  yards.  This  indicates  a  flight  of  nearly 
a  mile.  It  shows  that  the  breeding  places  within  a  mile 
of  a  given  building  must  be  abolished  if  the  flies  are  ex- 
terminated. 

C.  F.  Hodge  has  found  house-flies  very  numerous  on 
the  cribs  of  the  Cleveland  waterworks  six  miles  out  in 
Lake  Erie.  These  flies  could  not  possibly  have  bred  on 
the  cribs  and  the  only  conclusion  is  "that  the  flies  are 
blown  at  least  six  miles  off  shore." 


THE  HOUSE-FLY 


ENEMIES   OF  THE  HOUSE-FLY 

The  house-fly  has  a  goodly  number  of  enemies,  some 
of  them  members  of  the  plant  world,  but  most  of  them 
belonging  to  the  animal  kingdom.  These  enemies,  how- 
ever, do  not  seem  to  succeed  in  reducing  the  num- 
bers of  the  house-fly  to  any  great  extent.  Of  course,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  how  many  house-flies  there  might  be  if 
none  of  its  enemies  existed. 

It  is  a  common  thing  to  find  dead  house-flies  on  window 
panes  in  the  fall  surrounded  by  a  whitish  ring.  This 
ring  is  caused  by  the  minute  white  spores  of  a  fungus  that 
lived  within  the  body  of  the  fly,  finally  causing  its  death. 
There  are,  at  least,  three  species  of  these  minute  low 
plants  or  fungi  that  have  been  found  to  attack  the  house- 

fly. 

Certain  mites  are  often  found  attached  to  the  bodies 
of  house-flies.  It  is  certain  that  some  of  these,  at  least, 
are  simply  clinging  to  the  fly  as  a  method  of  transportation 
from  one  place  to  another.  They  undoubtedly  lie  in 
wait  for  the  fly  and  when  opportunity  offers  seize  hold  and 
are  carried  to  a  supply  of  food,  where  they  drop  off.  It 
is  possible  that  other  species  of  these  mites  feed  upon  their 
host,  but  very  little  of  definite  information  is  at  hand  con- 
cerning this  point. 

Of  course,  spiders,  when  allowed  to  build  their  webs 
and  establish  themselves  in  rooms,  will  catch  and  kill 
many  flies. 

Hornets  are  more  or  less  effective  fly  catchers.  The 
English  Entomologist,  Westwood,  writing  in  1840,  quotes 
from  St.  John's  "Letters  to  an  American  Farmer"  to  the 
effect  that  "The  Americans,  aware  of  their  [hornets] 


12  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

service  in  destroying  flies,  sometimes  suspend  a  hornet's 
nest  in  their  parlors."  Again,  in  1869,  Benjamin  D. 
Walsh,  an  American  Entomologist,  writes  that  "some 
persons  in  America  have  turned  this  insect  devouring 
propensity  of  the  hornets  to  good  purpose  by  suspending 
one  of  their  nests  in  a  house  much  infested  by  the  common 
house-fly.  In  such  a  situation  we  have  been  told  that 
they  soon  make  a  clearance  of  the  obnoxious  flies ;  and 
so  long  as  you  do  not  meddle  with  them  they  will  not 
meddle  with  you."  It  has  never  been  the  author's  good 
fortune  to  know  any  one  personally  who  has  used  this 
unique  method  of  destroying  house-flies.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  we  believe  the  good  housekeeper  would 
rather  take  her  chances  of  happiness  among  the  house- 
flies  than  with  a  good  big  nest  of  hornets  as  a  kitchen 
companion. 

There  are  several  minute  hymenopterous  parasites 
of  the  house-fly.  Some  of  these  are  parasitic  on  the  larvae 
and  some  upon  the  puparia.  It  is  probable  that  in  certain 
instances  some  of  these  parasites  are  numerous  enough  to 
destroy  many  flies.  However,  much  more  remains  to 
be  learned  regarding  the  habits  and  destructiveness  of 
these  enemies  of  the  fly. 

A.  A.  Girault  and  G.  E.  Sanders  of  the  University  of 
Illinois  have  given  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  parasites 
of  the  house-fly.  Many  of  their  observations  have  been 
published  in  the  entomological  magazine,  Psyche,  within 
the  last  two  or  three  years.  In  one  instance,  at  least, 
they  found  a  certain  parasite  so  abundant  that  it  destroyed 
as  high  as  ninety  per  cent  of  its  host.  One  could  wish 
that  this  enemy  of  the  house-fly  occurred  more  fre- 
quently and  were  more  widely  distributed. 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  13 


THE   RELATION   OF  THE   HOUSE-FLY  TO   DISEASE 

Notes  of  suspicion  have  been  sounded  against  the  house- 
fly by  far-seeing  physicians  for  many  years,  but  nothing 
definite  was  proven  against  this  insect  until  comparatively 
recent  times.  It  has  now  been  definitely  proven  that 
house-flies  can  and  do  carry,  both  externally  and  inter- 
nally, certain  disease  producing  germs.  For  example, 
it  has  been  shown  by  several  observers  that  the  bacilli 
of  typhoid  fever  may  be  carried  on  the  feet,  legs,  bodies, 
and  in  the  alimentary  canals  of  flies.  Moreover,  the  bacilli 
pass  through  the  alimentary  tract  and  are  voided  in  the 
"specks"  in  a  virulent  condition.  The  typhoid  bacillus 
has  been  recovered  from  flies  caught  in  undrained  privies. 

The  bacillus  of  cholera  has  also  been  found  in  great 
numbers  on  the  bodies  of  flies  and  has  been  found  in  fly 
"specks"  within  17  hours  after  the  insects  have  been 
fed  upon  cholera  infected  material  and  the  bacilli  have 
persisted  in  the  "specks"  for  several  days.  Moreover, 
flies  infested  with  these  germs  have  been  shown  to  carry 
them  to  milk. 

It  is  also  held  that  the  house-fly  may  carry  the  tuber- 
culosis bacillus  and  deposit  it  on  food.  Several  experi- 
menters have  found  the  bacillus  in  the  intestines  and  ex- 
crement of  flies  that  have  been  fed  on  the  sputum  of 
tuberculous  patients.  There  is  evidently  grave  danger 
of  infection  through  the  agency  of  house-flies.  Every  one 
has  noted  the  avidity  with  which  flies  seem  to  feed  on 
expectorated  saliva. 

House-flies  are  charged  with  the  conveyance  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  germs  of  infantile  diarrheal  diseases. 
Jackson  showed  that  the  mortality  of  bottle-fed  infants 


14  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

in  proportion  to  those  feeding  at  the  breasts  was  as  25 
to  1  in  New  York  City.  He  feels  sure  that  the  house-fly 
is  responsible  for  a  large  part  of  this  mortality  among 
bottle-fed  infants,  due  to  the  infection  of  the  milk  by  the 
flies  with  the  germs  of  infantile  diarrhea,  and  the  like. 

There  seems  a  possibility  that  the  house-fly  may  convey 
the  plague  bacillus  from  infected  rats  or  human  beings 
to  other  individuals.  The  bacilli  of  leprosy  have  been 
found  in  the  alimentary  canals  and  feces  of  flies  after  they 
have  been  allowed  to  feed  on  leprous  sores.  Whether 
these  bacilli,  if  lodged  by  the  fly  on  the  person  of  an  un- 
infected  individual,  would  enter  the  system  of  that  in- 
dividual and  produce  the  disease  is  not  known.  At  all 
events,  one  would  not  care  to  have  a  fly  carrying  these 
bacilli  alight  on  one's  food  or  person. 

Anthrax  bacilli  are  also  carried  about  by  flies,  and  Howe, 
according  to  Howard,  has  shown  that  the  purulent  con- 
junctivitis of  the  Egyptians  is  spread  by  the  house-fly. 
House-flies  are  especially  dangerous  as  agents  of  the  dis- 
semination of  disease  germs  because  they  are  fond  of  all 
kinds  of  human  foods,  both  liquid  and  solid,  and,  moreover, 
are  very  restless,  active  insects,  traveling  quite  extensively 
and  flitting  from  place  to  place  with  considerable  rapidity. 
"In  the  course  of  a  few  moments  a  single  fly  may  crawl 
over  human  or  other  excrement,  sip  from  a  glass  of  milk 
or  water,  and  merrily  chase  across  a  dish  of  mashed 
potatoes,  or  other  human  food.  It  may  visit  a  dead  and 
decaying  animal,  or  sport  about  the  mouth  of  a  reeking 
sewer,  and  in  the  next  five  or  ten  minutes  sip  from  the 
edge  of  a  glass  of  jelly  or  alight  in  the  sugar  bowl."  As 
an  English  author  wrote  many  years  ago,  the  house-flies 
become  a  great  nuisance  "both  from  their  numbers  and 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  15 

the  pertinacious  curiosity  with  which  every  individual 
of  the  race  seems  resolved,  for  its  own  satisfaction,  to 
taste,  see,  and  touch  every  object  around  it." 

As  a  result  of  this  restless  characteristic  of  the  house- 
fly, it  often  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  contamination 
of  milk.  Unfortunately,  milk  is  a  favorable  medium  for 
the  growth  and  multiplication  of  bacteria  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, easily  contaminated.  We  have  already  pointed  out 
that  the  body  and  feet  of  the  fly  are  admirably  fitted  for 
carrying  bacilli ;  and  that  the  bodies  of  flies  are  usually 
teeming  with  myriads  of  these  microscopic  plants.  More- 
over, it  is  easy,  in  fact  almost  inevitable,  for  flies  to  fall 
into  open  pails  and  cans  of  milk  whenever  the  latter  are 
accessible  to  these  roving  insects.  If  a  fly  bearing  typhoid 
fever  bacilli  should  fall  into  a  pail  of  milk,  the  contagion 
might  easily  be  spread  all  along  the  route  of  the  milkman. 
Undoubtedly,  such  instances  have  occurred,  as  shown 
by  the  following  case  quoted  by  Hewitt  from  Taylor 
(Colorado  State  Board  of  Health).  "  In  the  city  of  Denver 
we  had  a  very  sad  as  well  as  a  plain  demonstration  of  the 
transmission  of  typhoid  fever  by  flies  and  milk.  Early 
in  August  of  this  year  the  wife  of  a  dairyman  was  taken 
with  typhoid  fever,  remaining  at  home  about  three  weeks 
before  the  removal  to  the  hospital,  August  28.  During 
the  first  two  weeks  of  September  we  received  reports  of 
numerous  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  northern  portion 
of  Denver,  and  upon  investigation  found  that  all  these 
cases  had  been  securing  their  milk  from  this  dairy.  An 
inspection  of  the  dairy  was  then  made,  and  in  addition 
to  learning  of  the  illness  of  the  dairyman's  wife,  we  also 
found  the  dairyman  himself  suffering  with  a  mild  case 
of  typhoid  fever,  but  still  up  and  delivering  milk.  The 


16  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

water  supply  of  the  dairy  was  fairly  good.  However, 
we  found  that  the  stools  of  both  the  wife  and  husband 
had  been  deposited  in  an  open  privy  vault  located  35  feet 
from  the  milk-house,  which  was  unscreened  and  open  to 
flies.  The  gelatine  cultures  exposed  for  30  minutes  in  the 
rear  of  the  privy  vault  and  in  the  milk-house  among  the 
milk-cans  gave  numerous  colonies  of  typhoid  bacilli,  as 
well  as  colon  bacilli  and  the  ordinary  germ-life.  The 
source  of  infection  in  the  dairyman's  wife's  case  is  un- 
known, but  I  am  positive  that  in  all  the  cases  that  occurred 
on  this  milk  route  the  infection  was  due  to  bacilli  carried 
from  this  vault  by  flies  and  deposited  upon  the  milk-cans, 
separator,  and  utensils  in  the  milk-house,  thereby  con- 
taminating the  milk.  The  dairyman  supplied  milk  to 
143  customers.  Fifty-five  cases  of  typhoid  fever  occurred 
and  three  deaths  resulted  therefrom." 


THE    NATURE    OF    TYPHOID    FEVER    AND    ITS    RELATION    TO 
THE    HOUSE-FLY 

The  relation  of  the  house-fly  to  typhoid  fever  is  con- 
sidered the  most  important  phase  of  the  disease-germ- 
carrying  powers  of  this  insect.  In  order  to  understand 
and  appreciate  this  relation  clearly,  something  of  the  nature 
of  the  fever  and  of  the  typhoid  bacillus  should  be  known. 

Typhoid  fever  is  a  so-called  enteric  disease.  That  is, 
it  is  caused  by  a  bacillus  or  germ  that  enters  and  lives 
within  the  intestines  of  the  affected  individual,  causing 
liberations  of  these  organs.  The  bacillus  affects  other 
organs  than  the  intestines,  for  example,  the  spleen,  and 
is  often  found  in  the  kidneys,  liver,  lungs,  and  even  in  the 
brain.  Its  presence,  together  with  a  poison  that  it  ex- 


THE   HOUSE-FLY  17 

cretes,  produces  the  conditions  that  give  rise  to  the  char- 
acteristic symptoms  of  typhoid  fever,  namely,  an  increas- 
ing and  fluctuating  temperature,  rose  rash  over  the 
abdomen,  diarrhea  or  constipation,  and  occasionally 
hemorrhages  of  the  intestines.  The  peculiar  and  vitally 
important  thing  about  the  bacillus  causing  the  disease  is, 
that  it  may  be  present  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  a  human 
being  some  time  before  the  individual  becomes  ill  and  may 
remain  long  after  the  patient  has  entirely  recovered. 
Moreover,  the  bacilli,  when  present  in  an  individual, 
may  be  given  off  in  the  feces  and  in  the  urine.  Thus,  an 
individual  may  be  giving  off  these  bacilli  of  typhoid  fever 
days  before  taking  to  the  bed,  and  weeks  or  months  or 
even  years,  in  the  case  of  a  "walking  typhoid"  patient, 
after  recovery.  If  the  excreta  or  urine  containing  these 
bacilli  are  deposited  where  they  are  accessible  to  flies, 
for  instance  in  open  privies,  the  chances  are  high  that 
the  bacilli  will  be  carried  on  the  bodies  of  these  insects 
back  to  our  kitchens  and  dining-rooms  and  be  deposited 
on  our  food.  During  the  Spanish-American  War,  flies 
were  traced  by  their  whitened  feet,  from  the  lime-sprinkled, 
open  latrines,  or  privies,  to  the  dining  tables  of  the  soldiers 
in  camp. 

It  makes  one  shudder  to  think  of  the  thousands  of  open 
closets  in  the  towns  of  the  United  States  to  which  flies 
have  access  and  in  which  they  breed  and  from  which  they 
may  come  direct  to  our  kitchens  and  dining-rooms. 

CHRONIC  CARRIERS 

As  stated  in  the  foregoing,  it  has  been  known  for  some 
time  that  the  bacilli  of  typhoid  might  be  given  off  before 


18  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

the  patient  was  brought  to  bed  and  several  days,  perhaps, 
after  apparent  recovery.  But  it  is  only  within  com- 
paratively recent  years  that  the  "chronic  carrier"  has 
become  recognized. 

Howard  gives  many  instances  of  this  type  of  affected 
individual,  among  the  more  notable  of  which  are  the 
two  following : 

"  The  first  case  here  to  receive  general  notice  was  that  of 
'Typhoid  Mary,'  an  Irish  cook,  who  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  George  A.  Soper  of  New  York.  She  had  been  cook 
with  a  family  on  Long  Island  and  during  the  summer  of 
1906  several  cases  of  typhoid  occurred.  The  writer  was 
consulted,  and  advised  that  Doctor  Soper  be  called  in  to 
make  a  thorough  investigation.  The  results  of  Doctor 
Soper's  search  were  most  interesting.  After  studying 
every  possible  source  with  absolutely  negative  results, 
the  proper  examinations  were  begun,  and  it  was  dis- 
covered that  Mary,  the  cook,  was  a  chronic  carrier. 
Her  past  history  was  looked  into,  and  it  was  found  that 
for  several  years  there  had  been  typhoid  cases  in  nearly 
every  family  who  had  engaged  her.  She  was  immedi- 
ately isolated  and  kept  in  custody  three  years.  Then 
she  was  released,  promising  never  again  to  engage  as 
cook  and  to  report  at  frequent  intervals.  She  returned 
after  four  months,  saying  that  she  could  get  no  work 
and  was  placed  by  the  New  York  City  Department  of 
Health  in  one  of  the  laundries  of  a  public  institution, 
where  she  still  remains." 

"In  another  instance  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  in  the 
Tenth  German  Army  Corps  in  the  summer  of  1909  was 
traced  to  a  chronic  carrier  in  the  case  of  a  woman  who 
prepared  vegetables  and  who  had  assisted  in  the  prep- 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  19 

aration  of  vegetable  salads.  The  typhoid  bacillus 
grows  on  the  surface  of  potatoes  readily,  and  this  accounted 
for  the  outbreak,  on  the  necessary  supposition  that  the 
woman  was  of  uncleanly  habits.  The  curious  point  in 
this  case  was  that  she  had  had  typhoid  thirty-six  years 
previously  for  the  only  time." 

It  is  difficult  to  detect  these  chronic  carriers,  and  often 
a  serious  problem  to  know  what  to  do  with  them  when 
found.  It  is  evident  that  they  are  dangerous  and  un- 
doubtedly many,  of  whose  presence  we  are  unaware,  are 
in  existence.  It  is  important  that  all  possible  efforts 
should  be  made  to  detect  them  and  it  is  equally  important 
that  none  of  them  should  be  allowed  to  take  any  part  in 
the  production  or  sale  of  milk  or  its  products  and  no  part 
in  preparing  and  handling  food. 

FLIES  THAT   BREED   IN   HUMAN   EXCREMENT 

Since  flies  take  up  bacilli  on  their  feet,  from  places 
where  they  breed  and  over  which  they  walk  and  carry 
them  into  our  dwellings,  it  becomes  pertinent  to  ascertain 
what  flies  breed  in  human  excrement  and  whether  such 
flies  enter  our  houses.  L.  O.  Howard,  in  an  investigation 
of  this  subject,  found  that  36  species  of  flies  actually 
breed  in  human  feces  and  41  species  were  found 
visiting  this  substance  or  feeding  upon  it.  Of  these 
77  species,  he  found  that  six  were  in  the  habit  of  visiting 
houses  and  were  actually  caught  in  dwellings.  At  the 
head  of  these  stood  the  common  house-fly,  which  was, 
by  far,  the  most  abundant  fly  in  houses,  but  not,  be  it 
said,  the  most  numerous  one  on  the  excrement. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  point  out  and  emphasize 


20  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

the   great  desirability   of    protection    from   these   filth- 
carrying  and  quite  possibly  disease-carrying  insects. 


METHODS   OF   PREVENTION 

The  ideal  method  of  fighting  house-flies  would  be  to 
destroy  the  eggs  and  maggots,  just  as  we  fight  mosqui- 
toes, but  the  problem  is  a  difficult  one,  especially  in 
the  country,  where  open  closets  exist  and  horse  and  cow 
stables  are  always  present.  The  opportunities  for  flies 
to  breed  are  really  very  great,  and  waste  material  in  the 
form  of  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter  is  an  in- 
variable accompaniment  of  life.  There  is  much  that  can 
be  done,  however,  to  lessen  the  dangers  from  this  insect. 

Treatment  of  manure  piles.  —  Domestic  animals  are 
absolutely  necessary,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  throw  the 
manure  from  horse  and  cow  stables  and  from  pig-pen  and 
poultry  house  out  into  piles  in  the  open  yard  to  lie  there 
for  weeks  and  become  ideal  breeding  grounds  for  flies. 

The  treatment  of  manure  piles  with  a  substance  to  kill 
the  maggots  has  been  tried  by  Howard,  Forbes,  Herms, 
and  others.  Howard  found  that  chloride  of  lime  was  an 
effective  maggot-killer  and  that  one  pound  of  it  mixed 
with  eight  quarts  of  horse  manure  killed  90  per  cent  of 
the  maggots  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  Unfortu- 
nately, chloride  of  lime  costs  at  least  three  and  one-half 
cents  a  pound  and,  in  addition,  the  chlorin  fumes  from 
treated  manure  piles  act  as  an  irritant  to  the  eyes  of  live 
stock.  If  the  manure  is  piled  away  from  the  stable  and 
one  does  not  mind  the  expense,  chloride  of  lime  may  prove 
satisfactory.  Otherwise  it  is  probably  impracticable. 

Howard's  experiments  with  kerosene  seem  to  indicate 


THE   HOUSE-FLY  21 

that  this  material  is  also  impracticable.  It  does  not 
penetrate  a  large  pile  of  manure  with  sufficient  ease  to 
reach  all  of  the  maggots  unless  so  large  quantities  are 
used  that  the  cost  becomes  prohibitive.  Ordinary  slaked 
lime  has  not  proved  an  efficient  destroyer  of  the  maggots. 

J.  J.  Davis  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  S.  A.  Forbes,  carried  out  some  interesting  experi- 
ments in  the  treatment  of  manure  piles  with  iron  sulphate. 
This  treatment  proved  so  successful  in  killing  the  maggots 
that  it  seemed  possible  to  make  certain  recommendations, 
namely,  that  a  solution  of  iron  sulfate,  two  pounds  in 
a  gallon  of  water,  or  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  dry 
sulfate  would  be  sufficient  for  one  horse  each  day. 
Iron  sulfate  is  so  cheap  that  it  would  not  cost  over  two 
cents  a  horse  a  day  and,  in  addition,  it  completely 
deodorizes  the  manure.  As  a  basis  for  this  recommenda- 
tion, it  was  estimated  that  the  average  driving  horse 
produces  about  fifteen  pounds  of  manure  a  day,  while 
a  working  horse  might  produce  twice  that  amount.  But 
a  large  part  of  the  manure  of  the  working  horse  is  dropped 
out-of-doors,  so  that,  perhaps,  no  more  would  accumulate 
for  treatment  than  for  a  driving  horse. 

The  storage  and  removal  of  manure.  —  It  has  been 
shown  that  flies  prefer  light,  open  places  in  which  to  breed 
and  that  they  rarely  enter  dark  rooms  to  deposit  their 
eggs.  It  therefore  becomes  an  inexpensive  and  simple 
matter  to  build  a  dark,  well  screened  room  or  a  tight 
cement  pit  in  which  the  manure  can  be  stored  for  a  long 
time  or,  if  preferred,  can  be  removed  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Herms  describes  and  illustrates  several  forms  of  re- 
ceptacles for  the  storage  of  manure  in  use  in  Berkeley, 
California.  He  says,  "Where  only  one  horse  is  stabled 


22 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


a  simple  galvanized  iron  garbage  can  has  been  found  very 
useful  and  convenient,  or  even  a  tight  barrel  covered  over 
with  a  tightly  fitting  lid.  The  contents  of  these  cans  or 
barrels  are  removed  once  or  twice  per  week,  either  by  the 
city  scavengers  or  by  gardeners  for  fertilizing  purposes. 
Where  many  horses  are  stabled,  as  in  a  livery  stable, 
a  larger  receptacle  must  be  provided.  In  such  cases, 
a  closet  or  bin  can  be  constructed  at  a  small  cost,  which 
is  satisfactorily  offset  by  the  absence  of  the  fly  nuisance. 
Such  a  closet  may  be  built  in  one  corner  of  the  stable, 

with  a  small  screened 
door  through  which 
the  manure  is  thrown 
when  cleaning  the 
stalls  (providing  for 
ventilation),  and  an 
outer  door  giving 
access  to  clean  out  the 
closet  once  or  twice 
per  week.  Or  a  closet 
of  about  the  same 
construction  may  be  built  in  the  form  of  a  shed  or 
lean-to,  connecting  with  the  stable  by  means  of  a  small 
screened  door,  as  above.  Where  it  is  not  convenient  to 
construct  a  lean-to  of  this  type  because  of  sliding  doors 
or  other  obstruction,  a  bin  may  be  substituted  as  shown 
in  the  figure  (Fig.  7).  The  illustration  shows  the  bin 
ready  to  receive  the  manure ;  the  bolted  door  shown  in 
front  swings  up  to  allow  access  in  the  removal  of  the  manure. 
The  use  of  a  concrete  floor  built  directly  upon  the  earth 
is  strongly  recommended,  and  the  wood  inside  should  be 
well  provided  with  a  heavy  coat  of  tar."  Of  course,  con- 


FIG.  7.  —  Bin  for  holding  manure. 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  23 

crete  bins  and  pits  are  preferable  to  wooden  ones,  but  they 
are  more  expensive. 

In  the  country,  where  it  is  preferred  to  remove  the 
manure  once  or  twice  a  week  rather  than  to  store  it,  it 
should  be  drawn  to  the  fields  and  scattered  thinly  over 
the  surface.  If  the  manure  is  left  in  piles  or  in  large 
lumps,  there  is  still  danger  of  its  serving  as  a  breeding  place 
for  flies.  But  if  scattered  thinly,  it  will  soon  dry  out  and 
become  unsuitable  for  the  maggots.  A  manure  spreader 
would  be  an  admirable  machine  for  this  purpose,  for  it 
cuts  the  manure  up  fine  and  scatters  it  evenly  and  thinly. 

Open  box  privies.  —  These  are  more  dangerous  in 
a  direct  way  than  barnyard  manure  piles.  The  flies  that 
breed  in  these  privies  and  those  that  breed  in  the  manure 
piles  and  afterward  visit  the  privies  are  a  constant  source 
of  danger.  The  feet  of  such  flies  are  sure  to  be  loaded  with 
whatever  germs  there  may  be  in  such  filth  and  where  they 
eventually  visit  the  kitchen  and  dining-rooms  the  food 
they  touch  just  as  surely  becomes  contaminated  with 
the  germs  the  flies  are  carrying.  Moreover,  on  farms 
these  flies  are  apt  to  contaminate  the  milk  and  thus 
endanger  the  lives  of  people  consuming  it.  City  health 
authorities  are  becoming  alive  to  the  dangers  of  unsanitary 
conditions  on  the  farms  from  which  milk  supplies  come. 
It,  therefore,  behooves  a  farmer  to  pay  special  attention 
to  these  conditions,  not  only  to  safeguard  the  lives  of  his 
own  family,  but  to  insure  the  disposal  of  his  milk  products 
to  the  best  financial  advantage.  There  is  no  longer  any 
excuse  for  the  old  open,  box  privy,  cleaned  out  once  a  year. 
It  is  a  positive  menace  to  every  house  in  the  near  vicinity 
as  well  as  to  individuals  living,  perhaps,  hundreds  of  miles 
away  because  of  its  possibilities  in  contaminating  milk 


24  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

supplies.  Some  form  of  sanitary  closet  must  be  substi- 
tuted and  the  question  is  so  important  that  it  seems  worth 
while  to  discuss  it  at  some  length. 

Undoubtedly  some  form  of  closet  by  which  the  waste 
matter  falls  in  water  to  be  disposed  of  later  or  to  be  carried 
away  immediately  through  underground  pipes  to  a  safe 
place  of  disposal  is  the  most  satisfactory.  In  the  country, 
and  in  a  multitude  of  small  country  towns  probably  some 
form  of  dry  closet  will  be  most  used  for  years  to  come. 

A  type  of  closet  that  serves  much  better  than  the  open, 
box  privy  should,  first  of  all,  be  built  as  nearly  fly  tight  as 
possible.  It  should  have  a  vault  built  underneath  it  of 
brick  and  cement  or  other  water-tight  material.  The 
vault  should  be  wide  enough  so  that  it  extends  as  far  back 
outside  of  the  closet  as  it  extends  underneath  and  should 
be  high  enough  to  prevent  surface  water  from  entering 
it.  Of  course  the  part  extending  outside  of  the  closet  must 
be  cloesd  with  a  tight  fitting  cover.  In  addition,  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  wood  ashes,  sifted  coal  ashes,  or  fine  soil, 
or  lime,  should  be  kept  inside  and  sprinkled  freely  over 
the  material  in  the  vault  by  each  one  using  the  closet. 
A  liberal  use  of  kerosene  oil  by  pouring  it  over  the  material 
in  the  vault  once  every  week  will  aid  greatly  in  destroying 
the  eggs  and  maggots  of  the  fly.  When  the  part  of  the 
vault  beneath  the  seat  becomes  full,  the  material  may 
be  drawn  backward  into  the  outer  half  of  the  closet.  This 
may  be  repeated  several  times  during  the  year.  The 
material  may  remain  there,  but  it  is  best  to  soak  it  well  with 
oil  occasionally.  When  it  is  removed,  it  should  not  be 
used  as  fertilizer,  but  should  be  burned  if  possible,  and  if 
not,  it  should  be  buried  far  from  any  buildings. 

A  much  better  form  of  closet  is  described  and  figured 


THE   HOUSE-FLY 


25 


in  detail  by  Stiles  and  Lumsden  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  463 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  This 
bulletin  may  be  had  by  writing  to  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.C.  The  author  would  advise  all 
who  are  interested  in  this  subject  to  obtain  a  copy  of 
this  bulletin.  Two  simple  types  of  sanitary  privies  are 
described  in  detail  and  fully  illustrated.  Each  one 
is  simple  in  con- 
struction, inexpen- 
sive, and  sanitary. 
Explicit  directions 
are  given  for  build- 
ing them,  together 
with  a  detailed  bill 
of  lumber  and 
materials  needed. 

Fly  traps.  — 
There  are  excellent 
wire  traps  for 
catching  flies,  that, 
when  baited  with 
some  attractive 
substance,  will 
catch  hundreds  of 
these  insects. 

C.  F.  Hodge  is  very  enthusiastic  over  the  use  of  traps 
placed  out-of-doors,  for  instance,  on  garbage  cans,  to 
catch  the  flies  before  they  enter  the  houses  at  all.  With 
one  of  these  traps  affixed  to  a  garbage  can  he  caught  2500 
flies  in  fifty-five  minutes  (Fig.  8).  The  cover  of  the  can 
was  held  up  so  that  there  was  a  small  open  space  all  around 
through  which  the  flies  might  enter.  After  they  had  once 


FIG.  8.  —  Hodge's  trap  for  garbage  can. 


26 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


entered  the  can,  they  naturally  migrated  upward  through 
the  hole  over  which  the  trap  was  placed,  being  attracted 
by  the  light  which  entered  only  at  this  place. 

Hodge  argues  that  we  should  catch  the  first  original 
pair  of  flies  in  the  spring  before  they  lay  any  eggs  and 
thus  escape  the  whole  fly  trouble.  And  he  thinks  it  could 
be  done  in  some  such  way  if  every  one  would  cooperate. 

The  ordinary 
fly  traps  are  rather 
small  and  where 
flies  are  abundant 
have  to  be  emptied 
too  often.  It  is 
sometimes  desir- 
able to  have  a 
trap  in  which  flies 
may  be  caught  in 
large  quantities 
without  being  fre- 
quently emptied. 
A.  M.  Bull  of  the 
engineering  divi- 
sion of  the  Uni- 


FIG.  9.  —  A  large  fly  trap. 


versity  of  Minnesota  designed  a  large  trap  of  this  kind 
that  has  proved  very  successful  (Fig.  9).  The  trap  is 
twenty-four  inches  long,  eight  inches  high,  and  twelve 
inches  wide.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  a  baseboard  (a), 
a  roof -like  trap  (6),  and  an  oval  part  (c).  On  the  base- 
board are  two  shallow  pans  to  contain  the  bait,  usually 
milk  and  bread.  The  trap  consists  of  two  roof-like 
screens  with  several  openings  along  the  ridge  for  the 
flies  to  crawl  through.  These  two  traps  are  fastened 


THE   HOUSE-FLY  27 

to  the  board  (6).  The  oval  part  (c)  covered  with  wire 
screen  is  placed  over  the  roof-like  traps  to  receive  and 
hold  the  flies.  The  three  parts  are  held  together  by 
the  hooks  at  the  end  (Fig.  10).  In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a 
cross  section  of  the  trap,  which  will  aid  in  explaining 
the  construction.  The  space  between  the  baseboard 
and  middle  portion  is  about  one-half  an  inch.  The 
bait  should  be  renewed  occasionally  and  not  allowed 


FIG.  10.  —  End  of  trap,  FIG.  11.  —  Cross  section 

showing  hooks.  of  trap. 

to  become  dry  and  unattractive.  The  flies  that  gather 
in  the  upper,  oval  part  of  the  trap  may  be  killed  by  pour- 
ing boiling  water  on  them.  Probably  galvanized  wire 
screen  will  withstand  the  effects  of  water  and  general 
usage  without  rusting  better  than  the  ordinary  painted 
wire. 

With  this  trap,  the  Minnesota  people  caught  in  a  dairy 
barn  in  one  day,  1700  flies ;  dining  hall,  rear  of  building, 
two  days,  3000  flies;  same  place,  five  days,  13,000  flies; 
on  the  back  porch  of  a  dwelling  house  not  far  from  a  stable 


28  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

containing  a  few  horses,  two  days,  8700  flies ;  same  place, 
one  day,  12,000  flies;  same  place  one  and  a  half  days, 
18,800  flies.  These  instances  suffice  to  show  the  effective- 
ness of  such  a  trap  in  certain  situations. 

Insect  powder.  —  There  is  a  powder  known  as  pyre- 
thrum,  Persian  insect  powder,  or  buhach,  that  is  sold 
a  great  deal  for  killing  all  kinds  of  insects,  especially 
household  pests.  When  the  pyrethrum  can  be  obtained 
in  a  fresh  condition  it  is  an  excellent  insecticide.  There  is 
no  more  satisfactory  way  of  ridding  a  kitchen  of  house- 
flies  than  by  the  use  of  this  powder.  Go  into  a  kitchen 
at  night,  close  all  the  doors  and  windows  and  then  sprinkle 
fresh  insect  powder  over  the  stove,  on  the  window  ledges, 
tables,  in  the  air,  everywhere.  In  the  morning  flies  will 
be  found  lying  around  dead  or  stupefied.  They  may 
then  be  swept  up  and  burned.  It  is  often  difficult  to  get 
fresh  pyrethrum  and  for  this  reason  its  use  is  not  always 
a  success.  The  buhach  is  a  California  product  made 
from  the  pulverized  heads  of  a-  species  of  Chrysanthemum 
grown  near  Stockton,  California.  This  powder  costs  a 
little  more  than  the  Persian  powder,  but  it  is  apt  to  be 
fresher  and  stronger.  It  will  pay  to  buy  the  buhach 
whenever  possible. 

Another  method  of  using  pyrethrum  or  buhach  is  to 
moisten  the  powder  with  water  and  mold  it  into  small 
cones.  These  cones  are  then  placed  in  an  oven  until 
they  are  thoroughly  dry.  Then  they  may  be  set  on  end 
in  pans  and  lighted  at  the  tips.  The  fumes,  which  are 
not  unpleasant  and  are  harmless  to  human  beings,  will 
kill  the  flies. 

It  is  said  that  the  vapor  produced  by  placing  20  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  on  a  hot  shovel  will  also  kill  the  flies.  We 


THE   HOUSE-FLY  29 

have  never  tried  this  and  have  heard  of  reported  failures. 
It  would  seem  as  though  the  amount  to  be  used  would 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  room. 

Minis  culicide.  —  This  is  also  useful  in  killing  flies  as 
well  as  mosquitoes.  It  should  be  used  exactly  as  is 
described  in  the  chapter  on  methods  of  protection  from 
mosquitoes. 

Bichromate  of  potash.  —  This  is  a  substance  often  used 
to  kill  flies.  It  is  not  a  virulent  poison  and,  therefore, 
little  danger  is  incurred  in  putting  it  about  the  room.  It 
should  be  dissolved  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one  part  of  the 
potash  to  two  of  the  latter  and  then  set  about  in  shallow 
dishes.  If  the  room  can  be  darkened  except  one  window 
and  the  solution  put  on  the  ledge  of  this  one,  in  the  light, 
the  results  will  be  quicker.  This  substance  has  not  always 
given  good  results. 

Formaldehyde.  —  One  of  the  best  solutions  for  attract- 
ing and  killing  flies  is  a  dilute  mixture  of  formaldehyde 
(40  per  cent)  with  water  and  milk.  A  tablespoonful  in 
a  pint  of  equal  parts  of  water  and  milk  will  attract  the 
flies  and  kill  large  numbers  of  them.  The  mixture  should 
be  poured  into  shallow  dishes,  soup  plates  for  instance,  and 
a  crust  of  bread  dropped  into  the  middle  of  the  dish  for 
the  flies  to  light  upon  and  to  facilitate  their  feeding.  If 
the  shades  of  all  of  the  windows  in  a  room  but  one  are 
pulled  down  and  a  plate  of  this  mixture  set  in  the  light, 
the  flies  will  be  attracted  and  killed.  We  have  cleared 
a  dining-room  of  every  fly  in  an  afternoon  in  this  way. 

Formaldehyde  will  not  prove  so  effective  in  dining- 
rooms  or  kitchens  where  there  is  food,  water,  or  milk  to 
which  the  flies  have  access.  It  will  be  most  successful 
where  it  is  the  only  liquid  they  can  get  to  drink.  For- 


30  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

maldehyde  is  not  a  virulent  poison  and  little  risk  is  run 
in  using  it. 

Fly  papers.  —  Tanglefoot  fly  papers  should  be  in  use 
in  a  kitchen  and  in  a  dining-room  too,  if  the  latter  has 
flies  in  it.  This  fly  paper  can  be  had  anywhere  now,  costs 
little,  and  is  very  efficient.  No  fly  should  be  allowed  to 
live  a  minute  longer  in  any  kitchen  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Better,  a  great  deal,  that  it  should  live  in  the 
parlor. 

House-flies  are  very  fond  of  gathering  on  a  string  or 
strip  of  paper  or  cloth  hanging  from  the  ceiling.  This 
habit  is  noticeable  in  any  room  where  flies  are  abundant 
and  the  strips  are  available.  It  may  be  taken  advantage 
of  in  a  very  effective  manner,  namely,  by  suspending 
narrow  strips  of  tanglefoot  paper  from  the  ceiling.  The 
flies  will  alight  on  these  narrow  strips  when  they  will 
not  go  near  the  sheets  lying  on  a  table  or  window  sill. 
It  is  amazing  how  easily  and  in  what  numbers  they  may  be 
caught  by  this  simple  device. 

Disposal  of  wastes.  —  Decaying  fruits,  vegetables, 
scraps,  and  slops  from  the  house  ought  always  to  be  placed 
in  tightly  covered  cans  or  barrels  or  in  closely  screened 
rooms  until  they  can  be  removed  and  buried,  burned,  or 
otherwise  disposed  of.  Scrupulous  care  and  cleanliness 
should  always  be  practiced  around  the  house. 

The  excretions  of  patients  suffering  from  typhoid  fever, 
diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  other  intestinal  diseases  should 
be  thoroughly  sterilized  by  treating  with  a  liberal  quantity 
of  carbolic  acid  before  being  thrown  into  closets  or  sewers, 
or  should  be  burned. 

Special  effort  should  always  be  made  to  exclude  flies 
from  a  sick  room,  particularly  in  the  case  of  contagious 


PLATE   1 


Eggs  of  house-fly  (X4),  above;  properly  screened  porch,  below. 


THE    HOUSE-FLY  31 

diseases.  They  not  only  annoy  the  patient,  but  they  are 
liable  to  convey  contagion  to  other  members  of  the 
household.  The  faces  of  babies  should  be  screened  with 
mosquito  netting. 

Protection  of  food.  —  Food  and  confectionery  exposed 
in  public  places,  lunch  counters,  and  restaurants  should 
be  protected  from  flies  by  screens,  cases,  or  other  con- 
trivances. One  ought  to  boycott  lunch  counters  that 
expose  their  food  to  the  dust,  flies,  and  other  insects 
always  found  in  abundance  about  railway  stations,  and 
restaurants.  The  exposure  of  fruits  in  the  ordinary  street 
fruit  stands  in  cities  is  dangerous  to  public  health. 

The  use  of  screens.  —  After  all  is  done  that  seems  pos- 
sible, still  there  will  be  some  flies,  but  these  may  be  largely 
kept  out  by  a  thorough  screening  of  all  doors  and  windows, 
as  is  fully  described  in  the  discussion  of  the  mosquito. 
Especially  will  there  be  flies  and  filthy,  germ-bearing  ones, 
if  the  neighbors  take  no  pains  with  their  stables  and  closets. 

Flies  enter  a  house  largely  through  the  back  door  of  the 
kitchen.  They  are  attracted  to  this  opening  by  the  odor 
of  the  cooking  and  by  the  warm  air  pouring  outward  when 
the  door  stands  open.  This  is  especially  noticeable  on  a 
wire  gauze  door  toward  night  if  the  main  door  is  left  ajar. 
The  wire  screen  is  often  literally  black  with  flies  and 
whenever  it  is  opened  some  of  them  are  almost  sure  to 
enter.  Moreover,  this  door  is  opened,  probably,  more 
than  any  other  in  the  house.  The  only  efficient  method 
of  keeping  flies  out  of  the  kitchen  is  to  build  a  porch 
(Plate  1)  over  the  back  door  and  screen  the  three 
open  sides.  Of  course  a  wire  gauze  door  must  be 
placed  in  one  side  wherever  it  is  most  desired.  With 
this  arrangement,  the  flies  cannot  gather  on  the  screen 


32  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

door  of  the  kitchen,  and  they  do  not  gather  on  the  porch 
screen  door  any  more  than  anywhere  else  because  there 
is  no  warm  air  or  odor  there. 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  HOUSE-FLY 

1836.   SPENCE,  WILLIAM.  —  Observations  on  a  mode  practiced  in 

Italy  of  excluding  the  common  house  fly  from  apartments. 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.,  London,  Vol.  1,  pp.  1-7. 
1869.   PACKARD,  A.  S.  —  Observations  on  the  anatomy  and  life 

history  of  the  house  fly.     Amer.  Nat.,  Vol.  2,  pp.  638-640. 
1874.   On   the    transformations    of   the    common   house    fly 

with  notes  on  allied  forms.     Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol. 

16,  pp.  136-150. 

1896.   BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Household  insects,  p.  172. 
1896.    HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  principal  household  insects   of  the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp. 

43-47. 
1896.  LUGGER,  OTTO.  —  The  housefly.     Bull.  48,  Minn.  Expt.  Stat, 

pp.  173-183. 

1898.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Further  notes  on  the  house  fly.     Bull. 
10,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  pp.  63-65. 

1898.  -   —  House  flies.     Circ.  35,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
pp.  1-8. 

1899.  NUTTALL,  H.  F.  —  On  the  role  of  insects,  arachnids,  and 
myriapods  as  carriers  in  the  spread  of  bacterial  and  parasitic 
diseases    of    man     and    animals.      Johns    Hopkins    Hospital 
Reports,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  1-152. 

1900.  REED,  WALTER,  VAUGHAN,  V.  C.,  and  SHAKESPEARE,  E.  O. 
—  Abstract  of  Report  on  the  origin  and  spread  of  typhoid  fever 

in  the  U.  S.  military  camps  during  the  Spanish  war  of  1898. 
Washington  Government  Printing  Office. 

1900.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  A  contribution  to  the  study  of  the  insect 
fauna  of  human  excrement.     Proc.  of  the  Wash.  Acad.  of  Sci., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  541-600. 

1901.     The  carriage  of  disease  by  flies.     Bull.  30,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent., 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  1901,  pp.  39-45. 


CHAPTER  II 

FLIES,  OTHER  THAN  THE  HOUSE-FLY,  THAT 
FREQUENT  HOUSES 

AMONG  the  flies  commonly  found  in  houses,  the  house- 
fly constitutes  the  major  number ;  but  there  are  several 
other  species  of  flies  that  frequent  dwelling  rooms,  some 
of  which  are  often  mistaken  for  the  house-fly.  Perhaps 
the  most  common  ones  found  in  houses  are  the  biting 
house-fly,  the  small  house-fly,  the  cluster-fly,  the  stable- 
fly,  the  "blue-bottle"  flies,  and  the  fruit  flies. 

Although  the  foregoing  and  a  few  other  species  of  flies 
are  frequently  found  in  dwelling-houses,  the  house-fly 
constitutes,  by  far,  the  greater  portion  of  all  the  flies  that 
may  occur  in  living-rooms.  Howard,  aided  by  persons  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  made  a  collection  of 
the  flies  found  in  rooms  in  which  food-stuffs  were  exposed. 
Altogether,  23,087  flies  were  caught  from  various  localities 
in  this  country.  Of  these,  98.8  per  cent  were  the  common 
house-fly.  Of  the  remaining  1.2  per  cent,  the  smaller  or 
lesser  house-fly  was  the  commonest  species.  Hamer,  in 
London,  found  that  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  flies  in 
kitchens,  and  living-rooms  of  houses  near  depots  for 
horse-refuse,  manure,  etc.,  were  the  common  house-fly. 

The  following  table  adapted  from  Johannsen  will  serve 
to  distinguish  some  of  the  more  common  of  these  allied 
species.  A  hand  lens  will  be  needed  to  make  out  some  of 
the  characters :  — 

35 


36 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


a.  Wing  with  apical  veins  (M  and  R)  parallel  or  diverging  at  tip 
(Fig.  12).  Homalomyia  canwvlaris,  the  lesser  house-fly, 
breeds  in  waste  vegetable  substances,  and  also  in  excrement. 


FIG.    12.  —  Wing   of   the   lesser  house- 
fly.    (X  10.) 

The  male  has  3  pairs  of  yellow  translucent  areas  on  its 
abdomen.  Several  related  kinds  (Phorbia,  etc.)  are  also 
frequently  seen  in  houses. 

Wing  with  apical  veins  (M  and  R)  more  or  less  convergent 
(Fig.  13). 


FIG.  13.  — Wing  of  house-fly. 


b.    Flies  with  blue  or  green  metallic  coloring.     Blue  and  green 
bottle  flies.     Common    indoors,  especially   in  spring  and 
fall.     They  breed  in  fresh  and  decaying  meat  and  vege- 
tables, some  in  excrement. 
bb.   Flies  with  dull  non-metallic  coloring. 

'c.  With  mouth-parts  produced  and  pointed,  fitted  for  pierc- 
ing (Fig.  16).  Stomoxys  calcitrans,  the  biting  house-fly, 
is  a  trifle  larger  than  the  typhoid  fly.  Especially  com- 


FLIES   THAT  FREQUENT  HOUSES  37 

mon  in  barns.     It  breeds  in  vegetable  refuse,  manure, 
and   excrement.  3  Hcematobia  serrata,   the   horn  fly,  is 
similar,  but  much  smaller.     It  is  occasionally  found  in 
houses ;  common  on  cattle, 
cc.   With  blunt  mouth-parts  (Fig.  6). 

d.   Last  section  of  vein  M  of  the  wing  with  abrupt  angle. 
e.    Thorax   with   four    longitudinal    lines   and   without 

golden  hairs.     House-fly,  Mwca  domestica. 
ee.    A  larger  fly  with  no  lines  on  thorax  but  with  golden 


FIG.  14.  —  Wing  of  stable-fly  (M.  stabulans).     (x  8.) 

hairs.     Cluster-fly,  Pollenia  rudis. 
dd.  Last  section  of  vein  M  of  the  wing  with  a  broad  gentle 

curve  (Fig.  14). 

/.  Eyes  microscopically  hairy;  each  abdominal  seg- 
ment with  2  spots.  Larvae  are  found  in  dung 
and  excrement.  Myiospila  meditabunda. 
ff.  Eyes  bare;  abdomen  gray  and  brown  marbled. 
Muscina  assimilis  with  black  legs  and  feelers, 
and  Muscina  stabulans  with  legs  more  or  less 
yellowish,  and  which  breeds  in  decaying  vege- 
table substances,  dung,  and  excrement,  are  fre- 
quently found  in  houses. 


38  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

THE   CLUSTER-FLY 

Pollenia  rudis 

The  cluster-fly  is  well-known  to  most  housekeepers 
because  of  its  habit  of  entering  houses  in  the  autumn  and 
hiding  away  in  protected  nooks  in  large  groups  or  clusters. 
We  have  seen  a  handful  of  these  flies  in  single  clusters  in  the 
corners  of  rooms  and  beneath  garments  hung  up  in  closets 
and  beneath  curtains  at  the  windows  of  seldom  used  rooms. 
They  are  a  nuisance  and  a  source  of  considerable  annoyance, 
not  from  the  damage  they  do,  for  this  is  evidently  slight, 
but  because  of  their  presence.  They  are  not  welcome 
guests  at  any  time. 

The  cluster-fly  is  an  European  insect  and  it  was  known 
there  at  least  a  century  ago.  Just  how  or  when  it  came 
to  this  country  is  not  known.  It  could  easily  have  come 
to  this  country  on  board  ships,  for  it  would  as  readily 
enter  a  ship  lying  in  port  on  an  autumn  day  as  a  dwelling 
house.  From  its  habit  of  hibernating  in  clusters  all 
winter  it  could  take  several  rides  back  and  forth  across 
the  ocean  before  spring.  Loew  mentions  it  in  a  list  of 
flies  published  in  1864  as  common  to  Europe  and  America 
so  that  it  was  here  some  years  before  that  date,  at  least. 

Appearance  of  the  fly.  —  It  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
house-fly  and  appears  longer  and  narrower.  This  is 
because  the  wings,  when  in  repose,  overlap  each  other, 
thus  bringing  the  outer  edge  of  each  almost  parallel  with 
the  sides  of  the  abdomen.  This  position  of  the  wings 
gives  the  effect  of  narrowness  when  viewed  from  above 
(Fig.  15).  The  wings  of  the  house-fly  when  in  repose 
stand  out  at  a  considerable  angle  to  the  abdomen.  More- 


FLIES   THAT   FREQUENT  HOUSES  39 

over,  the  thorax  of  the  cluster-fly  bears  many  short, 
golden  hairs.  The  thorax  is  of  a  uniform  coloration  and 
lacks  the  light  and  dark  lines  on  the  thorax  of  the  house- 
fly. The  abdomen  is  grayish  but  inclined  to  be  iridescent, 
and  thickly  set  with  hairs,  especially  at  the  posterior  end 
and  along  the  sides. 

Its  habits.  —  Normally  the  cluster-fly  lives  out-of-doors, 
frequenting  the  flowers  and  fruits  of  plants.  In  the 
autumn,  however,  it  enters  dwelling-houses  in  search  of 
snug  retreats  in  which  to  pass 
the  winter.  It  gathers  in  clus- 
ters in  the  corners  of  unused, 
darkened  rooms,  under  clothing 
in  closets,  beneath  curtains  at 
windows,  and  in  other  nooks. 
A  correspondent  writes,  "Can 
you  give  me  information  con- 
cerning the  house-fly  which  in 

late  August  and  September  gets     ^  ^  _  Tfae  duster.fly 
into  unused  rooms  where  there  (x  2|.) 

is  no  food  or  odor  and  bunches 

in  the  angles  of  the  wall  and  behind  pictures  and  fur- 
niture ?  They  do  not  fly  much  but  crawl  about  in  a 
lazy  manner.  Screens  and  every  device  which  works 
perfectly  in  excluding  the  ordinary  fly  are  useless  in 
keeping  these  out."  This  letter  describes  the  habits  of 
the  cluster-fly  admirably. 

W.  H.  Dall  quotes  from  a  letter  of  a  relative  living  at 
Geneva,  New  York,  who  had  been  much  troubled  with 
these  flies.  Evidently  the  flies  had  been  troublesome  in 
the  neighborhood,  for  the  letter  says,  "  people  soon  learned 
to  look  everywhere ;  in  beds,  in  pillow-slips,  under  table 


40  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

covers,  behind  pictures,  in  wardrobes,  nestled  in  bonnets 
and  hats,  under  the  edges  of  carpets,  etc."  They  were 
also  said  to  be  found  in  incredible  numbers  under  buildings 
between  the  earth  and  the  floor. 

Lintner  gives  several  instances  of  the  occurrence  of 
these  cluster-flies  in  buildings  in  different  localities  in 
New  York  State. 

The  cluster-flies  enter  a  building  in  the  fall  one  by  one 
through  cracks  and  crevices  and  afterwards  gather  in 
clusters.  In  the  spring  they  swarm  on  windows  on  warm 
sunny  days.  When  crushed  some  say  they  emit  an  odor 
like  honey,  others  say  the  odor  is  disagreeable. 

Its  life  history.  —  Almost  nothing  is  known  of  the  life 
history  of  this  fly,  as  common  as  it  is.  Riley  states  that 
he  found  the  puparia  of  the  cluster-fly  in  the  roots  of  grass 
about  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Howard  says  that  a  single  specimen  of  this  fly  was  reared 
from  cow-manure  in  the  Insectary  of  the  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology at  Washington.  J.  S.  Hine  of  Columbus,  Ohio, 
writes  Howard  that  he  reared  a  number  of  specimens  of 
cluster-flies  from  cow  droppings  in  the  pasture. 

Robineau  Desvoidy  remarks  that  the  eggs  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Pollenia  are  laid  in  manure  and  in  de- 
composing animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

Methods  of  control.  —  We  are  probably  partly  safe, 
at  least,  in  assuming  that  the  cluster-flies  lay  their  eggs 
on  decaying  vegetable  matter  and  that  the  larvae  live  in 
these  substances.  If  correct,  then  the  same  methods 
used  in  the  control  of  the  house-fly  will  also  be  of  benefit 
in  controlling  the  cluster-fly.  However,  it  is  probable 
that  the  cluster-fly  breeds  over  much  wider  areas,  —  away 
from  buildings,  out  in  the  fields  and  possibly  in  the  woods. 


FLIES   THAT   FREQUENT   HOUSES  41 

In  this  event,  it  would  be  impracticable  to  control  it  in 
the  same  way  as  we  would  the  house-fly. 

The  clusters  of  flies  found  in  the  corners  of  rooms  may 
be  swept  into  boiling  water  and  killed.  Fresh  pyrethrum 
or  buhach  dusted  freely  on  them  will  kill  or  stupefy  them 
so  that  they  may  be  swept  up  and  burned. 

Screens  afford  little  protection  against  cluster-flies.  A 
correspondent  writes  that,  "The  only  way  I  have  found 
to  keep  them  out  of  the  room  is  to  leave  out  screens, 
lower  the  window  from  the  top,  and  have  the  room  light." 
Fortunately,  the  cluster-flies  are  often  subject  to  a  fungus 
disease,  which  kills  many  of  them.  This  fungus  has  been 
determined  by  Thaxter  as  Empusa  americana. 

THE   BITING   HOUSE-FLY 

Stomoxys  calcitrans 

This  fly  is  commonly  known  as  the  stable-fly,  but  as  it 
frequents  houses,  bites  severely,  and  is  often  mistaken 
for  the  house-fly,  it  may  well  be  called  the  biting  house- 
fly. Because  of  the  mistaken  identity  between  this  fly 
and  the  common  house-fly  the  popular  fallacy  that  the 
latter  can  bite  has  arisen.  The  biting  house-fly  is  slightly 
larger  and  more  robust  than  the  house-fly  and  has  an 
awl-like  proboscis  (Fig.  16)  with  which  it  can  pierce  the 
flesh  and  cause  severe  irritation.  It  will  bite  through 
stockings,  and  is  very  annoying,  sometimes,  by  biting 
one's  ankles,  especially  when  low  shoes  are  worn. 

Habits  and  life  history.  —  This  is  normally  an  out- 
door insect,  but  it  frequently  seeks  the  shelter  of  houses, 
especially  just  before  storms  and  has,  therefore,  been 
called  the  "storm-fly."  Other  flies,  however,  have  the 


42  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

same  habits,  and  the  name  "storm-fly"  is 
no  more  appropriate  for  this  fly  than  for 
others.      It  loves  the  direct   sunlight,  and 
may  be  seen  basking  on  walls  and  fences 
in  the  sun.      When  darkness   begins    they 
seek  shelter    in    protected    places,  entering 
stables  and  other  buildings.     While  camp- 
ing one  summer    in    the    Adirondacks    the 
author  pitched  his  tent  in  a  small  wooded 
pasture  near  the  shores  of  a  lake.     Every 
FIG.  16.—  evening  these    flies  (Fig.   17)    would    come 
Head  and  pro-  into  our  tent  in  numbers  and  rest  on  the 
biting    house-  walls  and  roof  until  the  sun  appeared  the 
fly.    (xs.)       following  morning.     They  evidently  bred  in 
the  droppings  of  two  cows  that  frequented 
a  moist  shady  retreat  not  over  a  score  of  yards  from  our  tent. 

Farm-yards  and  sta- 
bles are  evidently  the 
usual  haunts  of  this  fly, 
but  it  is  found  in  fields, 
about  gardens,  and  in 
open  woods  where  cat- 
tle are  grazing. 

Newstead  has  traced 
its  life  history  quite 
fully.  He  found  that 
the  creamy-white  eggs 
were  laid  in  irregular 
heaps  in  fresh  horse  ma- 
nure and  in  the  feces  of 

other  animals.       He  FJG    17.  _  Biting  house.flyj  stomoxys 
found  the  females  actu-  caidtrans.    (x  3|.) 


\ 


FLIES  THAT  FREQUENT  HOUSES  43 

ally  depositing  their  eggs  in  numbers  in  piles  of  heated 
lawn  grass  alongside  of  a  cucumber  frame  in  a  garden. 
Howard  has  reared  the  fly  from  horse  and  cow  manure 
and  remarks,  "I  judge  from  the  fact  that  it  is  attracted 
to  human  excreta  that  it  may  become  a  carrier  of  in- 
testinal disease." 

The  eggs  hatch  in  two  to  three  days  under  temperatures 
ranging  from  65  degrees  to  72  degrees  F.  The  larvae 
demand  a  good  deal  of  moisture  and  an  absence  of  light 
for  their  best  development.  Under  these  conditions  they 
attain  their  growth  in  two  to  four  weeks.  Evidently 
where  soil  is  available  beneath  the  manure  the  larvae 
bore  down  to  it  and  pupate  in  the  earth.  The  pupal  stage 
lasts  6  to  26  days.  The  complete  life  cycle  is,  therefore, 
passed  through  in  from  3  to  4  weeks  under  favorable  con- 
ditions of  light,  heat,  and  moisture. 

F.  C.  Bishopp  records  a  very  interesting  outbreak  of  the 
biting  house-fly  in  Texas.  The  flies,  in  this  case,  were 
found  breeding  in  great  numbers  in  straw  stacks.  From 
these  situations  they  swarmed  on  the  live  stock,  causing 
serious  injury  to  horses  and  cattle.  Moreover,  investi- 
gation and  inquiry  disclosed  the  fact  that  previous  out- 
breaks of  this  fly  had  occurred  in  former  years. 

Bishopp  found  the  flies  breeding  in  oat,  rice,  barley,  and 
wheat  straw,  and  in  horse  manure  and  cow  manure.  In 
the  straw  stacks,  the  maggots  were  found  in  the  wet 
rotting  straw.  When  the  larvae  attained  their  growth 
they  pupated  in  the  straw.  A  single  fly  was  seen  to  make 
three  depositions  of  eggs,  laying  a  total  of  278  eggs.  The 
total  period  from  egg  to  adult  varied  from  nineteen  to 
forty-three  days. 

Howard,  in  his  book  on  the  house-fly,  relates  an  in- 


44  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

teresting  investigation  of  the  biting  house-fly  made  by 
Lucien  Iches  and  reported  in  a  paper  to  which  we  have 
not  had  access.  Iches  found  the  flies  swarming  in  great 
numbers  on  a  large  estate  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe , 
Argentina.  The  cattle  were  very  greatly  annoyed  and 
driven  almost  frantic  by  the  bites  of  the  flies.  Certain 
Durham  bulls  were  particularly  infested  with  the  flies. 
The  hair  had  disappeared  in  spots  and  the  skin  was  crack- 
ing. A  search  for  the  breeding  places  showed  that  the 
larvae  and  puparia  existed  by  the  millions  in  the  lower 
portions  of  piles  of  straw  left  from  threshing.  Fermenta- 
tion had  begun  in  the  straw,  thus  affording  an  attractive 
place  for  the  deposition  of  eggs.  The  breeding  places 
were  destroyed  by  burning  the  straw. 

The  bite  of  this  fly  is  severe,  as  any  one  can  attest  who 
has  been  a  victim.  Osborne  says:  "It  causes  a  great 
amount  of  annoyance  to  cattle,  horses,  and  other  domestic 
animals,  and  it  is  frequently  very  troublesome  to  people 
working  in  places  where  it  abounds.  Its  bite  is  not 
poisonous  and  aside  from  the  pain  given  and  the  possibility 
of  its  disseminating  disease,  it  is  less  injurious  than  some 
other  members  of  the  group.  When  abundant,  however, 
this  annoyance  may  be  very  great,  and  they  all  deserve 
attention." 

Bold  gives  an  interesting  note  regarding  the  severity 
of  the  bite  on  cattle.  In  this  case  fourteen  cows  under 
the  treatment  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  were  generally 
bitten  on  the  legs,  shoulders,  and  rarely  on  the  necks. 
"In  some  of  the  severe  cases  the  joints  were  so  much 
swollen  that  the  poor  animals  could  not  bend  their  legs 
to  lie  down ;  and  in  them  the  inflammation  rose  so  high  as 
to  cause  the  loss  of  the  outer  skin  and  hair.  The  flies 


FLIES   THAT  FREQUENT  HOUSES  45 

appeared  to  prefer  the  knees  and  upper  portion  of  the  foot 
in  the  cow,  frequently  crawling  from  thence  to  the  hands 
of  the  veterinary,  but  on  him  their  bite  had  no  injurious 
effect." 

Relation  to  disease.  —  The  biting  house-fly  has  been 
suspected  of  transmitting  disease,  particularly  among 
domestic  animals.  They  have  been  charged  with  trans- 
mitting glanders  from  diseased  to  healthy  animals  and 
anthrax  among  cattle.  Schuberg  and  Kuhn  have  lately 
shown,  experimentally,  that  this  fly  is  capable  of  trans- 
mitting certain  trypanosomes  in  a  mechanical  manner  to 
healthy  animals.  In  1912,  Brues  and  Sheppard  brought 
together  certain  evidence  pointing  toward  this  fly  as  a 
transmitter  of  infantile  paralysis.  Later,  in  September  of 
that  same  year,  Rosenau  and  Brues  announced  that  they 
had  experimentally  transmitted  infantile  paralysis,  through 
the  agency  of  Stomoxys  calcitrans  to  monkeys  which  were 
suspectible  to  the  disease.  In  the  month  following, 
October,  Anderson  and  Frost,  of  the  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Service,  announced  that  they  had  re- 
peated the  experiments  with  similarly  positive  results. 
We  therefore  find  that  four  scientists  working  in  groups 
of  two,  independently  of  each  other,  have  demonstrated 
that  the  biting  house-fly  is  a  transmitter  of  infantile 
paralysis  among  monkeys  susceptible  to  the  disease. 
Moreover,  Brues  and  Sheppard  have  shown  that  the 
seasonal  occurrence,  distribution,  and  other  facts  con- 
nected with  Stomoxys  agree  wonderfully  well  with  the 
conditions  of  an  epidemic  of  this  disease.  From  all  the 
evidence  at  hand  we  are  justified  in  looking  upon  the  biting 
house-fly  with  considerable  suspicion,  for  it  may  be  a 
transmitter  of  infantile  paralysis  among  children.  It  must 


46  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

be  said,  however,  that  later  experiments  by  different 
workers  have  given  only  negative  results  in  the  trans- 
mission of  this  disease. 

It  has  been  suggested,  with  some  show  of  reason,  that 
this  fly  may  play  a  role  in  the  transmission  of  pellagra. 

THE  STABLE-FLY 

Muscina  stabulans 

The  stable-fly  resembles  the  house-fly  considerably 
but  it  has  a  longer  and  more  robust  body.  It  is  evidently 
not  as  abundant  in  houses 
as  some  of  the  other  species. 
Hewitt  says  he  usually  finds 
it  in  the  early  summer  be- 
fore the  house-fly  has  ap- 
peared in  any  numbers.  It 
seems  to  be  widely  dis- 
tributed in  this  country 
and  in  Europe  and  is  often 
mistaken  for  the  house-fly 
(Fig.  18).  The  dorsal  side 
of  the  thorax  is  gray  and 

FIG.  IS.  — The  stable-fly,  Muscina  ,  T        • 

stabulans.    (x  3.)  bears  tour  dark  longitudi- 

nal   lines   quite  similar  to 
the   thorax   of   the   house-fly. 

The  eggs  of  the  stable-fly  are  laid  on  decaying  vegetables, 
fruits,  fungi,  and  in  cow  manure.  Hewitt  says  that  the 
larvae  sometimes  attack  growing  vegetables,  probably 
having  been  introduced  about  the  plants  in  manure. 
Howard  found  the  flies  frequenting  human  excreta  and 
the  larvae  breeding  in  this  material.  It  has  been  reared 


FLIES   THAT  FREQUENT   HOUSES  47 

from  the  pupae  of  the  cotton-leaf  worm,  the  gipsy  moth, 
and  from  pupae  of  certain  Hymenoptera.  It  has  also 
been  reared  from  masses  of  the  larvae  and  pupse  of  the 
imported  elm  leaf-beetle.  The  chances  are  that  it  was 
not  parasitic  on  these  insects,  but  that  the  pupae  were  in 
a  decaying  condition,  thus  acting  as  food  for  the  larvae. 
The  life  history  of  this  fly  is  not  known  in  detail,  but 
Taschenberg  says  that  the  life  cycle  occupies  from  five 
to  six  weeks.  The  larva  of  this  fly  has  been  known  to 
pass  through  the  alimentary  tract  of  man.  In  this  case 
access  was  probably  gained  to  the  stomach  through 
vegetables  eaten  by  the  individual. 

The  relation  of  this  fly  to  the  dissemination  of  disease 
is  not  definitely  known,  but  it  is  a  species  that  should  be 
considered  with  suspicion  until  proven  guiltless,  at  least. 
It  breeds  in  human  excreta  and  is  evidently  attracted 
to  this  material,  especially  when  it  is  deposited  in  open 
places.  As  it  enters  houses  there  is  thus  ample  op- 
portunity for  it  to  pick  up  and  convey  disease-producing 
germs.  Its  scientific  name,  stabulans,  was  given  to  it 
before  its  habits  were  known ;  but  in  the  light  of  what 
we  now  know  of  its  breeding  places  there  seems  to  be 
little  appropriateness  in  the  name  stable-fly. 

THE   LESSER   HOUSE-FLY 

Homalomyia  canicularis 

In  early  spring,  in  May  and  June,  before  the  house-fly 
appears,  there  are  often  numbers  of  small  flies  frequenting 
rooms  and  crawling  on  the  window  panes.  Chief  among 
these  is  the  lesser  house-fly.  It  is  considerably  smaller 
than  the  house-fly  and  by  many  is  considered  a  young 


48  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

house-fly  not  full-grown.  The  Germans  call  it  the  "  Kleine 
stiibenfliege, "  which  means  little  room-fly  or  house-fly. 
The  lesser  house-fly  differs  markedly  from  the  house-fly 
not  only  in  size,  but  in  other  characters.  The  fifth  vein 
of  the  wings  runs  straight  out  to  the  edge  without  the 
sharp  upward  curve  of  the  same  vein  in  the  wing  of 
the  house-fly.  Indeed,  the  lesser  house-fly  belongs  in  the 
family  Anthomyiidce,  a  family  considered,  by  some 
authors,  distinct  from  the  Muscidoe,  which  contains  the 
house-fly.  Although  the  lesser  house-fly  appears  rather 
early  in  the  season,  it  is  soon  lost  among  the  greater 
numbers  of  the  house-flies  that  come  on  in  June  and  July. 

The  larvae  of  the  lesser  house-fly  differ  very  much  from 
those  of  the  house-fly.  The  body  is  compressed  or 
flattened  and  along  each  side  bears  a  double  row  of  spiny 
processes  very  different  from  the  perfectly  smooth  maggots 
of  the  house-fly.  The  dirt  usually  clings  to  the  spines, 
thus  giving  the  maggots  a  dirty  appearance.  The  full- 
grown  maggot  measures  from  £  to  \  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  larvae  of  the  lesser  house-fly  live  in  waste  vegetable 
matter,  in  the  manure  of  different  animals  and  especially 
in  human  excrement.  Hewitt  says  he  has  found  them 
very  abundant  in  privies.  This  habit  of  breeding  in 
excreta  of  various  kinds  makes  the  flies  dangerous  inhabit- 
ants of  our  rooms.  They  may  act  as  conveyors  of  disease- 
germs  quite  as  readily  as  the  real  house-fly.  They  are 
rapid  breeders,  for  a  generation  may  be  produced  in  two 
weeks  in  hot  weather. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  some  of  the  Anthomyiids 
are  parasitic  on  other  insects,  while  some  are  well-known 
pests  of  garden  crops,  for  example,  the  cabbage-root 
maggot,  the  onion  maggot,  and  the  beet-leaf  miner. 


FLIES   THAT  FREQUENT  HOUSES 


49 


THE   BLUE-BOTTLE   OR   BLOW-FLIES 

Calliphora  erythrocephala  and  Lucilia  ccesar 

There  are  certain  large  flies  known  as  "blue-bottles," 
"green-bottles,"  or  "blow-flies"  that  are  found  in  houses, 
especially  during  June  and  early  summer.  They  may  be 
recognized  by  their  large 
size,  buzzing  noise,  and 
blue  metallic  colors. 

The  common  blow-fly, 
C.  erythrocephala,  has  a 
bluish-black  thorax  and  a 
dark  metallic  blue  abdo- 
men (Fig.  19).  The  eggs 
of  this  fly  are  usually  laid 
on  fresh  or  decaying  meat, 
although  they  may  be  de- 
posited in  SOreS  Or  WOUnds  FIG.  1!J.  —  The  blow-fly.  (X2.) 

of  living  animals.  The  fe- 
male blow-fly  seems  capable  of  laying  a  large  number 
of  eggs.  Portchinsky  records  finding  450  to  600  eggs 
from  a  single  fly.  Hewitt  found  that  a  generation  of 
these  flies  was  produced  in  twenty-two  to  twenty-three 
days. 

Normally,  this  blow-fly  lives  out-of-doors,  but  it  often 
enters  houses  in  search  of  material  upon  which  to  deposit 
its  eggs  and  evidently  also  for  shelter.  It  has  been  found 
frequenting  human  feces  and  for  this  reason  may  be 
suspected  of  bearing  intestinal  bacteria,  thus  making  it 
a  fly  to  be  dreaded. 

The  other  "blue-bottle"  (L.  coesar]  is  smaller  than  the 


50  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

one  just  discussed  and  is  more  brilliant  in  color,  —  some- 
times bluish  and  sometimes  greenish.  It  is  common  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe.  It  frequently  enters  houses, 
especially  just  before  rain-storms.  It  breeds  in  carrion, 
in  sores  on  living  animals  and  in  the  excrement  of  man  and 
other  animals.  The  larvae  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  first  blow-fly  discussed  except  that  they  are  smaller. 

THE  MOTH-FLIES 

Psychoda  mirnda 

There  are  often  found  upon  window  panes  certain 
tiny  flies  with  broad  wings  densely  clothed  with  hairs. 
In  appearance  they  resemble  very  small  moths  and  are, 
therefore,  known  as  moth-flies.  They  belong  to  the  family 
Psychodidse  and  may  be  distinguished  from  all  other  flies 
by  their  moth-like  appearance.  The  larvae  of  some  of 
these  flies  live  in  cow-dung,  others  in  decaying  vegetation, 
while  some  live  in  water,  especially  sewage  water  or 
drain  water  from  kitchens.  We  have  seen  hundreds  of 
these  moth-flies  among  the  weeds  overhanging  a  ditch 
carrying  the  drainage  water  from  a  kitchen.  We  have  also 
seen  them  in  abundance  along  ditches  carrying  sewage 
water  from  houses.  In  the  first-mentioned  instance  they 
were  always  present  on  the  window  panes  of  the  kitchen, 
readily  passing  through  the  ordinary  wire  screen.  Judg- 
ing them  from  the  places  in  which  they  breed,  we  would 
consider  them  unwelcome  guests  in  our  houses. 

Almost  nothing  is  known  of  the  life  history  of  the  North 
American  species.  Kellogg  found  the  larvae  of  one  species 
of  moth-fly,  Pericoma  calif ornica,  in  a  stream  in  California. 
He  found  the  larva  were  slug-like,  about  one-tenth  of 


FLIES   THAT   FREQUENT   HOUSES  51 

an  inch  long  and  that  they  clung  to  stones  in  the  stream 
by  a  row  of  eight  suckers  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  body. 
When  ready  to  pupate  the  larvse  crawl  higher  up  on  stones 
where  the  spray  dashes  on  them.  The  pupa?  are  small, 
flatish,  and  breathe  by  a  pair  of  respiratory  tubes  on  the 
thorax.  After  about  three  weeks  the  adults  issue  and 
fly  to  the  overhanging  weeds. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  one  of  the  species  of  this 
family  is  a  carrier  of  the  disease  known  as  phlebotomus 
fever.  This  disease  occurs  in  the  countries  surrounding 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  fly  concerned  in  carrying 
the  fever  is  Phlebotomus  papatasii.  The  habits  of  this 
fly  seem  to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  related  species 
occurring  in  this  country.  The  adult  fly  is  said  to  be  a 
vicious  biter,  although  very  small,  and  does  its  biting 
entirely  at  night.  We  have  one  species  of  Phlebotomus 
in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  it  will 
act  as  a  carrier  of  this  disease  or  not. 

It  seems  also  to  have  been  demonstrated  that  a  species 
of  Phlebotomus  in  South  America  transmits  the  disease 
verruga. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THESE  FLIES 

THE  CLUSTER-FLY 

Pollenia  rudis 

1883.    DALL,  W.  H.  —  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  V,  p.  635. 
1893.    LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Ninth  Kept.,  N.  Y.  Ins.,  pp.  309-314. 
1911.    HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  house-fly,  disease  carrier,  p.  236. 
See  Lintner's  ninth  Rept.  for  further  references. 


52  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

THE   BITING   HOUSE-FLY 

Stomoxys  calcitrant 

1865.     BOLD,  T.  J.  —  Entomologists'  Monthly  Magazine,  Vol.  2, 

pp.  142-143. 
1896.     OSBORN,   HERBERT.  —  Insects   affecting  domestic   animals. 

Bull.  5,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  122. 
1906.     NEWSTEAD,  ROBERT.  —  Journal  of  Economic  Biology,  Vol. 

1,  pp.  157-166. 

1911.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  house-fly,  disease  carrier,  p.  240. 

1912.  BRTJES,  C.  T.,  and  SHEPPARD,  P.  A.  —  The  possible  etiological 
relation  of  certain  biting  insects  to  the  spread  of  infantile  paraly- 
sis.   Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  5,  No.  4,  pp.  305-324. 

1912.  ROSENAU,  M.  J.,  and  BRUES,  C.  T.  —  Some  experimental 
observations  upon  monkeys  concerning  the  transmission  of 
poliomyelitis  through  the  agency  of  Stomoxi/s  calcitrans.  Bull. 
Mass.  State  Board  Health,  pp.  314-317. 

1912.  ANDERSON,   J.  F.,  and  FROST,   W.   H.  —  Transmission  of 
poliomyelitis  by  means  of  the  stable  fly  (Stomoxys  calcitrans). 
Public  Health  Reports,  Vol.  27,  No.  43,  pp.  1733-1735. 

1913.  BRUES,  C.  T.  —  The  relation  of  the  stable  fly  (Stomoxys 
calcitrans}  to  the  transmission  of  infantile  paralysis.     Jr.  EC. 
Ent.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  101-109. 

1913.     BISHOPP,  F.  C.  —  The  stable   fly  (Stomoxys  calcitrant)  an 

important  live  stock  pest.    Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  112-126. 

1913.    The  stable  fly.     Farmers'  Bull.  540,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


THE  STABLE-FLY 

Muscina  stalntlans 

1880.  TASCHENBERG,  E.  L.  —  Praktische  Insekten-kunde,  Part 
IV,  p.  108. 

1909.  HEWITT,  C.  GORDON.  —  The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Micro- 
scopical Science,  Vol.  54,  Part  3,  p.  360. 

1911.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  house-fly,  disease  carrier,  p.   248. 


FLIES    THAT   FREQUENT   HOUSES  53 

THE    MOTH-FLIES 

Psychodida; 

1895.    COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual  for  the  study  of  insects,  p.  428. 
1901.    KELLOGG,  V.  L. — An  aquatic  psychodid.     Entomological 

News,  Vol.  12,  pp.  46-49. 
1905.     American  insects,  p.  319. 


THE   LESSER   HOUSE-FLY 

Homalomyia  canicularis 

1909.     HEWITT,  C.  GORDON.  —  The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Micro- 
scopical Science,  Vol.  54,  Part  3,  p.  354. 
1911.    HOWARD,  L.  O. — The   house-fly,  disease  carrier,  p.  246. 


THE  "BLUE-BOTTLES,"  OR  BLOW-FLIES 

1909.     HEWITT,  C.  GORDON.  —  The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Micro- 
scopical Science,  Vol.  54,   Part  3,  pp.  358-361. 
1911.    HOWARD,  L.  O. — The  house-fly,  disease  carrier,  p.  252. 


CHAPTER  III 

MOSQUITOES,  THEIR  HABITS  AND  DISEASE  RELA- 
TIONS 

MOSQUITOES  are  really  a  kind  of  small  fly  differing 
from  house-flies  in  size  and  in  their  power  to  "bite." 
They  are  no  more  abundant  to-day  than  they  were  a 
century  ago;  but  much  greater  interest  is  shown  in 
them  nowadays  than  formerly  because  of  their  relations 
to  certain  diseases.  Since  the  discoveries  were  made 
that  mosquitoes  carry  certain  diseases  the  hum  of  one 
of  these  insects  has  come  to  have  an  entirely  new 
meaning  for  us.  Before,  our  only  thought  was  to  kill 
the  insect  to  prevent  it  from  annoying  us.  Now,  we 
see  visions  of  sickbeds,  feverish  patients,  suffering,  and, 
in  many  cases,  death.  Naturally,  a  great  deal  of  interest 
in  mosquitoes  has  been  aroused,  and  very  properly  so, 
because  we  should  take  an  interest  in  anything  that  affects 
our  health. 

There  are  known  to  be  nearly  400  different  kinds  of 
mosquitoes  in  North  America  alone,  and  over  sixty  species 
occur  in  the  United  States.  Not  over  half  a  dozen  of  these 
are  common  about  our  houses  and  only  three1  of  them 
are  known  to  carry  malaria  and  only  one  is  concerned 
in  disseminating  yellow  fever.  The  malarial  species 
occur  all  over  the  United  States  in  sufficient  numbers 

1  The  three  species  are  Anopheles  quadrimacidatus  and  Anopheles 
crucians  with  Anopheles  psetulopunctipennis  as  a  probable  third  host. 


MOSQUITOES  55 

to  carry  malaria  to  thousands  of  people.  It  must  be 
said,  however,  that  our  most  common  and  abundant 
species  of  mosquitoes  have  no  connection  with  human 
diseases,  so  far  as  we  know,  and  are  of  importance  only 
because  of  their  extreme  annoyance  in  biting. 

Mosquitoes  are  found  in  both  salt  and  fresh  water. 
It  would  seem  as  though  these  insects  bred  in  greatest 
numbers  in  saltwater,  and  we  usually  find  areas  of  greatest 
infestation  along  the  seacoasts.  The  greater  number  of 
our  common  species  of  mosquitoes  belongs  to  the  genus 
Culex.  So  far  as  known,  none  of  these  are  disease- 
carrying.  There  are  three  species  belonging  to  the  genus 
Anopheles  in  the  United  States  that  have  been  shown  to 
carry  malaria  in  some  one  or  more  of  its  forms.  Finally, 
there  is  one  species  of  mosquito,  Aedes  calopus,  that  has 
been  proven  to  carry  yellow  fever.  In  order  to  control 
mosquitoes  intelligently,  one  should  understand  something 
of  their  life  histories  and  habits. 


LIFE   HISTORY   OF  A   COMMON   MOSQUITO 

Throughout  the  interior  of  the  United  States  probably 
the  house  mosquito,  Culex  pipiens,  is  the  most  common. 
It  is  a  so-called  European  species,  but  has  now  been  de- 
termined as  present  quite  generally  over  the  country. 
So  far  as  is  known,  it  neither  transmits  malaria  nor  yellow 
fever  to  human  beings.  It  is,  therefore,  of  importance 
largely  because  it  greatly  annoys  man.  We  portray  its 
life  history  (Fig.  20)  and  habits  here,  because  it  is  famil- 
iar to  every  one  and  thus  serves  as  an  example  to  show 
how  mosquitoes  live.  It  breeds  in  almost  every  place  in 
which  fresh  water  may  be  found,  in  quiet  pools,  road- 


56 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


side  ditches,  sewer  ditches,  hollow  stumps,  rain-barrels, 
cisterns,  tin  cans,  watering-troughs,  and  other  receptacles. 
Some  instances  of  curious  places  in  which  the  larva?  have 
been  found  will  be  given  later. 


FIG.  20.  —  Life  history  of  a  hou 


The  adult  mosquitoes,  in  the  fall,  hide  away  in  cellars, 
barns,  outhouses,  or  other  suitable  places  and  there  pass 
the  winter  in  a  dormant  condition.  Probably  the  majority 
of  these  hibernating  mosquitoes  die  before  spring.  Those 
females  that  survive  the  winter  become  active  in  the  early 
spring,  and  after  feeding  or  sometimes  without  obtaining 


MOSQUITOES  57 

food,  seek  a  convenient  pool  of  water  on  which  to  deposit 
their  eggs. 

Eggs.  —  The  eggs  of  Culex  pipiens  are  laid  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  more  or  less  boat-shaped  masses, 
(Fig.  21).  Each  mass  contains  from  75  to  200  eggs,  con- 
sequently they  vary  much  in  size.  They  measure  from 
^  to  ^  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
are  plainly  visible  to  the  eye. 
The  eggs  stand  on  end  in 
regular  rows  with  the  larger 
ends  down.  When  first  laid 
the  masses  appear  yellowish 
white,  but  a  little  later  they  FlG-  21 
become  dark  brown  in  color 
and  appear  as  small  masses  of  soot  floating  on  the  water. 
Very  often  where  there  are  many  egg  masses  on  the  water, 
several  of  them  will  run  together  by  capillary  action  and 
form  a  raft  of  eggs  on  the  surface.  We  have  seen  as 
many  as  a  dozen  of  these  egg  masses  clinging  to  each  other. 

Each  individual  egg  is  long  and  cylindrical,  larger  at  the 
lower  end,  and  tapering  to  the  upper  end.  As  seen  from 
the  side,  it  resembles  the  blade  of  a  knife  (Fig.  20,  d). 
These  eggs  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  from 
twenty-four  hours  to  several  days,  depending  upon  the 
temperature,  and  then  hatch. 

Larva.  —  When  the  egg  hatches,  there  issues  from  the 
lower  end  a  larva,  or  "wriggler."  Every  one  that  has 
looked  into  rain-barrels  that  have  stood  for  some  time 
during  hot  weather  has  surely  seen  "wrigglers."  These 
are  the  product  of  mosquito  eggs.  The  larva  of  Culex 
pipiens  rests  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  with  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  head 


58 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


hanging  downward  at  an  angle  of  40  degrees.  At  the  tip 
of  the  eighth  abdominal  segment  is  a  long  tube  known  as 
the  respiratory  tube  (Fig.  20,  </).  It  is  through  this  tube 
that  the  larva  takes  in  its  supply  of  air.  This  fact  accounts 
for  its  position  with  the  tail  end  up  and  the  breathing 
tube  just  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  so  that  air  may 
be  drawn  through  it  to  sustain  life.  At  the  same  time, 
two  dark  brushes  of  hairs  about  the  mouth  can  be  seen 
in  constant  vibration,  by  which  currents  of  water  are  set 
up  and  food  thus  brought  to  the  animal.  In  a  jar  con- 
taining many  of  the  wrigglers,  some  may  always  be  seen 
wriggling  to  and  from  the  bottom  in  search  of  food. 
The  larval  stage  lasts  from  five  to  ten  days. 

Pupa.  —  At  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  in  hot  weather, 
the  larva  changes  to  another  form  that  we  call  the  pupa, 
one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  pupae  live  in  the 
water  along  with  the  larvae  and  can 
wriggle  about  as  actively  as  the  larvae. 
In  fact,  we  suspect  most  people  call 
them  wrigglers,  supposing  them  to  be 
the  same  as  the  larvae.  But  by  look- 
ing carefully  one  can  see  a  consider- 
able difference  between  these  two 
forms.  The  pupa  is  mostly  head  and 
thorax,  with  but  a  slender  abdomen. 
The  breathing  apparatus  now  consists 
of  two  respiratory  tubes  instead  of 
one,  and,  moreover,  they  are  situated 
on  the  thorax  instead  of  on  the  end 
of  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  the  larva.  As 
a  result  of  the  change  in  position  of 
the  breathing  tubes,  the  pupa  floats  in  the  water  with 


FIG.     22.  —  Pupa 
Culex,  enlarged. 


MOSQUITOES 


59 


the  head  up.  It  is  as  active  as  the  larva  when  disturbed. 
After  the  pupa  has  lived  five  or  six  days  it,  in  turn, 
transforms  to  the  adult.  The  skin  of  the  pupa  splits 
open  along  the  top  of  the  thorax  and  the  adult  mosquito 
gradually  works  its  way  through  the  opening.  Then, 
using  the  empty  skin  as  a  raft,  it  rests  for  a  few  minutes 
to  dry  its  wings  and  then  flies  away.  Ordinarily,  the 
female  lives  until  she  finds  a  suitable  place  to  deposit 
her  eggs,  which  may  take  two  or  three  weeks,  during 
which  interval  she  may  bite  several  times. 

Adult.  —  The  full-grown  Culex  pipiens  is  a  moderate- 
sized  mosquito.  In  Fig.  20,  c,  the  adult  female  is  shown 
considerably  enlarged.  It  is  usually  the  female  alone 
that  bites  and  annoys  us.  The  male  mosquito  is  well 
behaved,  and  although  he  often  enters  the  house,  does 
not  annoy  us.  He  usually  lives  by  sucking  the  nectar 
of  flowers.  We  have  seen  him  sipping  the  sirup  from 
a  jug  on  the  table.  The  male  can  easily  be  distinguished 
from  the  female  mos- 
quito by  the  brushes 
of  hairs  on  the  head. 
The  antennae  or 
"feelers"  of  the  male 
mosquito,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  23,  are  clothed 
with  many  long  bris- 
tles, while  the  antennae 
of  the  female  have 
fewer  and  much  shorter 

hairs.  The  difference  is  almost  as  noticeable  to  the  un- 
aided eye  as  Fig.  23  shows  it  to  be.  These  house  mos- 
quitoes do  not  usually  fly  far,  but  in  seeking  for  food 


FIG.  23.  —  Head  of  female,  left ;  male, 
right.     (X8.) 


60  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

and  breeding  places  they  may  wander  several  hundred 
yards  from  their  birthplace. 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  life  history  of 
Culex  pipiens  we  see  that  three  of  the  stages,  egg,  larva, 
and  pupa,  are  passed  on  or  in  the  water.  The  life  histories 
of  many  other  mosquitoes  have  been  determined  and  in 
every  case  it  has  been  found  that  two,  at  least,  of  these 
stages  were  passed  in  the  water.  We  conclude,  then,  that 
water  is  necessary  for  the  development  and  the  very  exist- 
ence of  mosquitoes.  Conversely,  we  conclude  that  in  an 
absence  of  water  mosquitoes  will  not  be  able  to  exist. 
Mosquitoes  will  not  breed  in  grass  unless  standing  water  is 
present. 

MALARIAL  MOSQUITOES    (Anopheles) 

There  are  several  kinds  or  species  of  malarial  mosquitoes 
in  the  United  States.  No  one  of  these  has  been  defi- 
nitely proven  to  carry  all  of  the  different  types  of  malaria. 
One  of  them,  however  (Anopheles  quadrimaculatus,Fig.24), 
seems  to  be  the  most  general  carrier,  for  it  has  been  shown 
to  carry  at  least  two  types  of  malaria,  the  tertian  and  the 
quartan.  This  species  is  evidently  widely  distributed 
in  the  United  States  and  is  probably  responsible  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  dissemination  of  malaria.  The  life 
histories  of  the  species  of  Anopheles  seem  to  be  similar. 
Like  that  of  Culex  pipiens,  the  life  cycle  of  Anopheles 
consists  of  four  stages. 

Eggs.  —  The  eggs  of  Anopheles  are  laid  singly  and  at 
random  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  naturally  run 
together  and  cohere  in  loose  irregular  groups  or  strings 
of  from  three  to  a  score  or  more.  This  is  totallv  different 


MOSQUITOES  61 

from  the  boat-shaped  egg-masses  of  Culex  pipiem.    The 
individual   eggs  differ  greatly  in   shape  from   those  of 


FIG.  24.  —  Anopheles  quadrimaculatus.     (X  7.) 

Culex.  The  eggs  of  Anopheles  are  strongly  convex  below 
and  slightly  concave  above.  As  seen  from  the  side  they 
are  canoe-shaped. 


62 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


Larvae.  —  As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  the  larvae 
of  Culex  hang  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  it  were, 
with  the  head  downward. 
On  the  contrary,  the  larvae 
(Fig.  25)  of  Anopheles  lie 
in  a  horizontal  position, 
apparently  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Really,  they 
are  just  beneath  the  sur- 
face film.  Their  breathing 
tube  is  very  short,  and,  con- 
sequently, they  are  obliged 
to  lie  close  to  the  surface 
in  order  to  get  air.  They 
can  be  readily  recognized 
by  this  horizontal  position. 
When  disturbed  they  wrig- 
gle across  the  water  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  espe- 
cially the  younger  larvae.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  the 
larvae  of  Culex  are  con- 
stantly diving  below  in  a 
vertical  direction.  As  the 
larvae  of  Anopheles  become 
older  they  more  readily 
wriggle  downward. 
The  feeding  habits  of 

An°Phe!es  lar™  are  very 

interesting  and  remarkable. 
The  head  is  joined  to  the  rest  of  the  body  by  a  very 
slender  neck,  on  which  it  readily  and  rapidly  rotates,  at 


MOSQUITOES  63 

least  halfway  round.  When  lying  beneath  the  water  film 
the  body  is  in  a  normal  position.  That  is,  the  upper 
side  of  the  body  is  uppermost  and  the  under  side  faces 
the  bottom  of  the  jar.  The  head,  however,  is  turned 
just  halfway  round  so  that  the  under  side  is  uppermost. 
This  is  its  customary  feeding  position.  If  for  any  rea- 
son it  attempts  to  swallowr  a  piece  of  food  too  large  and 
there  is  difficulty  in  getting  it  down,  the  head  turns 
back  with  lightning-like  rapidity.  All  the  time  the 
brushes  of  hairs  about  the  mouth  are  in  motion,  bringing 
to  it  particles  of  food. 

The  duration  of  the  larval  stage,  under  normal  condi- 
tions with  plenty  of  food,  varies  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
days. 

Pupae.  —  The  pupae  of  Anopheles  are  not  strikingly 
different  from  those  of  Culex  to  the  unaided  eye. 

The  pupal  stage  of  both  males  and  females  in  the  case 
of  A.  punctipennis  which  the  writer  has  carefully  ob- 
served lasts,  with  great  regularity,  just  about  two  days. 
At  least  it  could  not  have  varied  more  than  a  few  hours 
from  this,  as  the  adults  were  found  in  every  case  on  the 
second  morning  subsequent  to  the  morning  on  which  the 
pupa3  were  found. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  entire  duration  of  the  early  stages 
of  Anopheles  punctipennis  in  Mississippi  under  normal 
conditions  in  July  was  sixteen  to  eighteen  days.  That 
is,  the  egg  stage  was  two  days;  larval  stage,  twelve  to 
fourteen  days;  pupal  stage,  two  days.  This  indicates 
that  in  a  pool  where  these  mosquitoes  breed  there  can 
be  developed  every  sixteen  to  eighteen  days  a  new  lot  of 
adult  mosquitoes.  It  further  indicates  that  if  such  a 
pool  be  treated  with  kerosene  oil,  it  will  need  an  applica- 


64 


HOUSEHOLD  1XSSCTS 


MOSQUITOES  65 

tion  once  in  every  sixteen  day**  or  three  weeks  at  the 
most,  to  be  perfectly  safe. 

Adults.  —  The  fnu-grown  male  and  female  AmapUe* 
pmehpetaaf  (Fig.  26)  arc  somewhat  liijpri  than  those 
of  CiJex  pipiem*.  The  wings  appear  of  a  heavier  texture 
and  present  a  spotted  appearance,  owing  to  die  wefl- 

l|» i  «  "tL.  •l«S«I.fc «  -  -         •?!«..->  ...I 

oenneo  spaces,  covereo  wun  WIIUJQU  scales,  sunateu  on 
the  front  margin  of  each  wing*  three-f oorths  of  Ac  lengtk 
of  the  wing  from  the  body,  is  a  yeuowkh  white  spot. 
These  two  spots  together  with  the  other 
give  the  mosquito  a  very  handsome  an 
pearance. 

wsnxcnvE  IHTFEEEXCES  BETWEEX  IHK  ADTLT  FEMALE 

AXOPHELES  AXD  THE  FEMALE  MOSQCIHMES  OF 


'    - 


doee  by  and  at  rest.    From 
theheadof  thefemaleAnoph- 

_i ti .    -»  !•» «, 

eies  tnere  project  tnree  long, 

siender  ^^M**  of  nearly  the 


head   of   the    female    Coles 

there  k  only  one  ptujccliam, 

Figtire  27  gives  an  idea  of 

thfe  6WerenceT  ahhoogh  Ae 

parts  are  much  enlarged. 
Another  dMfaeiiLe  between  Ae 

then*  restcmg  positions.     When  the 

Culex.  ansjits  on  a  wall  it  rests  wiA  fe  body 


66  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

parallel  to  that  wall  like  a  house-fly ;  but  an  Anopheles 
mosquito  usually  rests  with  its  body  at  a  considerable 
angle  to  the  surface.  We  have  seen  Anopheles  clinging 
to  the  ceiling  in  a  horse  stall  by  their  four  front  legs  with 
their  bodies  hanging  almost  straight  downward. 

Moreover,  the  wings  of  all  of  the  common  Anopheles 
are  more  or  less  spotted,  while  those  of  Culex  are  plain 
and  clear. 

BREEDING   PLACES    OF   ANOPHELES 

It  is  quite  as  necessary  to  know  the  places  in  which 
these  mosquitoes  breed  as  to  know  their  life  history, 
if  one  wishes  to  destroy  them  before  they  become  full- 
grown. 

The  common  mosquito  (C.  pipiens)  breeds  in  barrels, 
tubs,  cisterns,  and  other  receptacles  about  the  house  and 
is,  therefore,  known  as  the  house  mosquito ;  but  Anoph- 
eles rarely  breed  in  such  situations.  They  choose  a 
ditch,  a  pool,  or  the  shallows  of  a  spring  brook,  creek, 
or  river  for  their  breeding  places. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  all  these  breeding  places 
are  in  water  standing  or  running  on  the  ground  and  only 
occasionally  in  barrels,  buckets,  or  other  receptacles  about 
dwelling-houses.  In  this  respect  the  malarial  mosquitoes 
are  quite  different  from  the  common  Culex,  which  breeds 
in  almost  any  situation  where  it  can  find  water. 

THE   YELLOW   FEVER  MOSQUITO 

Aedes  calopus  =  Stegomyia  fasciahi 

The  yellow  fever  mosquito  is  a  small  day-flying  species 
with  white  banded  legs  and  silver  lines  on  the  back  of  the 


MOSQUITOES 


67 


thorax  (Fig.  28).  It  is  commonly  known  as  the  "day" 
mosquito,  "tiger"  mosquito,  "gray"  mosquito,  and 
"calico"  mosquito. 
It  is  undoubtedly 
not  a  native  mos- 
quito of  the  United 
States,  but  has  been 
introduced  through 
commercial  inter- 
course from  tropical 
countries.  It  is, 
however,  widely  dis- 
tributed south  of  the 
Mason  and  Dixon 
line,  and  has  been 
reported  as  far  north 
as  New  York,  where 
it  was  probably  car- 
ried by  boats.  It 
is  primarily  a  house 
mosquito  in  towns 
and  cities  and  is 
seldom  found  around 
country  homes. 

Its  life  history  is  similar  to  that  of  Culex.  The  eggs 
are  black  in  color  and  covered  with  a  shining  membrane. 
They  are  cigar-shaped  and  are  found  singly  or  in  groups 
near  or  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  rain-barrels,  cisterns, 
tanks,  or  other  receptacles  for  water  about  the  house. 
The  eggs  are  very  resistant  to  cold  and  to  drying,  but  under 
favorable  circumstances  hatch  in  ten  hours  to  three  days. 
The  larvae  are  very  active,  always  searching  and  foraging 


FIG.  28.  —  The  yellow  fever  mosquito. 
(XT.) 


68  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

for  food.  They  attain  their  growth  in  from  seven  to  eight 
or  ten  days.  The  pupal  stage  lasts  about  two  days,  so  that 
the  whole  life  cycle  maybe  passed  in  two  weeks  or  even  less. 

The  yellow  fever  mosquito  seems  to  be  most  active  and 
to  do  most  of  its  biting  in  the  afternoon  and  early  evening, 
although  Miss  Mitchell  says  that  in  Baton  Rouge  it 
troubled  her  most  before  9  P.M.  We  have  found  them 
particularly  active  in  the  early  afternoon  on  shady  porches. 

Yellow  fever  cannot  become  epidemic  where  this 
mosquito  is  not  present.  Any  one  can  remain  among 
cases  of  yellow  fever  with  perfect  safety  if  he  avoids  being 
bitten  by  an  infested  mosquito. 

BREEDING  PLACES  OP  THE  MORE  COMMON  MOSQUITOES 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  almost  any  body  of 
fresh  water  in  almost  any  situation,  if  left  standing  long 
enough,  will  become  infested  with  larvae  of  mosquitoes. 
In  the  ditches  that  receive  sewage,  we  have  seen  a  black 
fringe  of  larvae  on  both  sides  for  nearly  a  mile. 

It  is  ordinarily  supposed  that  mosquitoes  breed  only 
in  stagnant  water,  or  in  water  that  is  changing  very  little. 
We  have  found  them  breeding  in  considerable  numbers  in 
troughs  for  watering  stock,  when  the  water  ran  in  at  one 
end  and  out  at  the  other  all  the  time.  We  have  found  an 
unused  room  swarming  with  mosquitoes  that  came  from 
a  bucket  of  slop  water. 

A  friend  of  mine  tells  me  of  finding  an  abundance  of 
wrigglers  in  a  glass  globe  of  water  standing  on  a  table  in 
the  parlor  of  a  house  at  which  he  was  visiting.  Fish 
had  been  kept  in  the  globe,  among  some  water  plants 
growing  there.  The  fish  had  died  some  time  before  and 


MOSQUITOES  69 

had  been  thrown  out  and  now  the  family  were  wondering 
where  the  mosquitoes  were  coming  from. 

HOW   FAR  DO  MOSQUITOES  FLY? 

The  answer  to  this  question  is  an  important  one  since 
upon  it  depends  the  success  of  certain  methods  of  exter- 
mination. Owing  to  the  careful  observations  of  John  B. 
Smith,  and  his  corps  of  workers,  we  are  able  to  answer  the 
question  with  some  degree  of  certainty.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  held  that  Anopheles  mosquitoes  do  not  fly  far  — 
probably  not  more  than  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
and  usually  not  nearly  so  far.  On  the  other  hand,  cer- 
tain saltwater  mosquitoes  fly  many  miles,  especially  when 
aided  by  a  strong  wind.  Fortunately,  these  do  not 
carry  disease  so  far  as  we  know. 

The  domestic  mosquitoes,  Culex,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, do  not  fly  far  from  their  breeding  places.  The 
yellow  fever  mosquito  is  essentially  a  domestic  one  and 
breeds  near  dwelling-houses. 

Miss  Mitchell  says  that  "the  mass  of  evidence  by 
experts  is  to  the  effect  that  the  greater  number  of  species 
are  not  in  the  habit  of  flying  more  than  two  hundred 
yards  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  that  most  places,  not 
situated  near  a  salt  marsh,  will  be  found  to  be  locally 
infested.  ...  If  mosquitoes,  not  the  marsh  species, 
are  plentiful  in  a  city,  the  chances  are  that  the  breeding 
place  is  near  by." 

THE   BITE   OF  A  MOSQUITO 

The  beak  of  a  mosquito  is  made  up  of  six  bristle-like 
or  lance-like  organs  inclosed  in  a  sheath.  This  sheath 


70  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

constitutes  the  part  of  the  beak  that  we  see  from  the 
outside.  The  bristle-like  organs  inside  are  the  real 
puncturing  part  of  the  beak,  for  the  sheath  does  not  enter 
the  flesh  when  a  mosquito  bites.  The  sheath  bends  and 
the  bristles  project  beyond  the  end  and  bore  their  way 
into  the  flesh.  The  whole  apparatus  serves  as  a  carrier 
to  conduct  the  blood  to  the  mouth. 

While  the  mosquito  is  puncturing  the  skin  an  irritating 
substance,  the  chemical  nature  of  which  is  not  known,  is 
injected  into  the  wound.  It  is  thought  by  some  authors 
that  this  poison  comes  from  special  glands  situated  be- 
tween the  salivary  glands  in  the  mouth  of  the  insect. 
Others  think  it  comes  from  the  salivary  glands  themselves, 
while  others  think  it  is  a  liquid  secreted  in  certain  pouch- 
like  organs  connected  with  the  esophagus  and  known  as 
the  cesophageal  diverticula.  At  any  rate  a  sensation  of 
itching  is  produced  by  the  bite.  The  immediate  area 
turns  red,  becomes  inflamed,  and  in  some  individuals 
much  swelling  follows. 

The  itching  and  irritation  may  be  relieved  by  the  appli- 
cation of  dilute  solutions  of  ammonia  or  a  5  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  1  per  cent  alcoholic  lotion  of 
menthol. 


RELATION    OF   MOSQUITOES   TO   MALARIA 

It  has  been  common  knowledge,  for  nobody  knows  how 
long,  that  in  some  way  malaria  is  connected  with  stagnant 
or  standing  water.  Along  with  this  we  have  also  known 
that  malaria  is  most  prevalent  in  bottom  lands,  valleys, 
swamps,  and  in  regions  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  because 
it  is  in  such  places  that  water  collects  and  stands.  It  has 


MOSQUITOES  71 

been  learned  from  experience  that  by  moving  to  high, 
dry  situations  malarial  fevers  may  be  avoided.  The 
disease  has  been  attributed  not  so  much  to  the  water  as  to 
the  so-called  miasmatic  airs  that  arise  from  the  water  and 
wet  soil.  In  fact,  malaria  means  bad  air.  Not  long 
ago  the  writer  heard  a  person  object  to  building  a  house 
in  a  certain  valley-like  depression  because  the  cold,  damp 
air  might  cause  malaria.  It  is  a  common  precaution 
against  malaria  to  go  within  doors  at  early  dusk  and  remain 
until  daylight,  for  the  purpose,  it  is  thought,  of  escaping 
the  damp,  fever-giving  atmosphere. 

It  is  true  that  there  is  a  definite  relation  between 
malaria  and  low  lands,  swamps,  stagnant  water,  marshes, 
and  exposure  out-of-doors  at  night  in  which  people  have 
believed  so  long.  The  relation,  however,  results  from  a 
very  different  agent  than  has  been  generally  supposed 
heretofore.  Within  the  last  few  years,  it  has  been  con- 
clusively and  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  malaria  is 
conveyed  to  human  beings  and  communicated  to  the  blood 
by  mosquitoes  and  not  by  miasmatic  airs  arising  from 
swamps  and  marshes.  The  question  immediately  arises, 
how  does  this  accord  with  the  relation  of  malaria  to  low 
lands,  marshes,  swamps,  stagnant  water,  exposure  at 
night,  and  the  like  ?  The  facts  as  we  now  know  them 
give  the  answer.  We  now  know,  by  scores  of  investiga- 
tions, that  mosquitoes  can  exist  only  where  there  is 
water ;  that  they  are  abundant  in  swamps,  marshes,  and 
low  lands,  and  that  they  (malarial  mosquitoes)  fly  and 
inflict  their  bites  mainly  at  night  and  that  they  are  not 
usually  present  in  high,  dry  situations. 

Our  next  great  proof  of  the  relation  of  mosquitoes  to 
malaria  is  the  fact  that  the  germ  causing  malaria  has  been 


72  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

carefully  and  repeatedly  traced  through  its  life  history, 
and  it  has  certainly  been  found  to  pass  a  part  of  its  exist- 
ence in  man  and  a  part  in  the  body  of  the  mosquito. 
Moreover,  the  part  of  its  life  that  is  passed  in  man  is  not 
like  that  passed  in  the  mosquito,  but  both  are  necessary 
to  the  ultimate  existence  of  the  germ.  These  facts  have 
been  independently  worked  out  by  some  of  the  world's 
greatest  scientists :  Ross,  Celli,  Bignami,  Daniels,  Laveran, 
Shipley,  Bastianelli,  and  others. 

To  those  familiar  with  the  lives  and  habits  of  the  lower 
animals  it  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  believe  that  one  of  them 
can  pass  part  of  its  life  in  the  body  of  one  animal  and  the 
rest  of  its  life  in  the  body  of  a  second  animal.  Many 
cases  of  this  kind  are  known  and  some  of  them  commonly 
known.  For  example,  a  common  tape  worm  which  exists 
in  the  bowels  of  a  human  being  spends  a  part  of  its  life 
in  the  body  of  a  hog.  In  fact,  we  get  this  particular  tape 
worm  only  by  eating  what  is  known  as  measly  pork. 
That  is,  pork  containing  young  minute  forms  of  the  tape 
worm.  The  pork  is  eaten  and  the  tiny,  undeveloped  tape 
worm  set  free,  which  soon  grows  into  an  adult  worm 
within  our  own  bodies.  Again,  there  is  the  liver  fluke 
worm  that  causes  the  liver  rot  of  sheep.  This  parasite 
passes  part  of  its  life  in  a  snail  from  which,  after  a  time, 
it  crawls  up  on  the  blades  of  grass  growing  about  ponds  and 
pools  of  water  in  which  the  snails  live.  In  this  situation 
the  minute  worm  is  swallowed  by  the  sheep  along  with 
the  grass  and  finally  finds  its  way  to  the  liver  of  the  sheep. 
Then,  there  is  that  much  dreaded  parasite,  Trichinella 
spiralis  (Fig.  29).  This  is  the  little  worm  on  which  Uncle 
Sam  spends  so  much  money  hiring  men  to  look  for  it  in 
the  carcasses  of  animals  in  the  great  slaughtering  and  pack- 


MOSQUITOES 


73 


ing  houses  of  the  United  States.     If  this  worm  is  found  in 

these  carcasses,  they  are  condemned  and  burned  because 

it  is  by  eating  them  that  human  beings  get  the  Trichina 

in  their  bodies,  which  may  cause   death.     Many  more 

examples  might  be  given  of  parasites 

that  live  in  more  than  one  host.     So, 

after  all,  the  fact  that  the  malarial 

germ  lives  in  both  man  and  mosquitoes 

is  not  a  new  and  anomalous  discovery, 

having  no  parallel  in  animal  life,  for 

many  similar  examples  have  been  long 

and  well  known.     The  nearest  parallel 

we  have  is  the  germ  causing  what  is 

known  as  Texas  fever  or  tick  fever,  in 

the    cattle    of    the    Southern    States. 

The  parasite   causing   this   disease   is 

very  similar   to  the   human   malarial 

parasite    and    acts    on    the    blood  of 

cattle  in   a  similar  way,  namely,  by 

destroying   the  red   blood   corpuscles. 

It  causes  fever  and  chills  in  the  cattle 

quite  similar  to  those  caused  in  man 

by  the  malarial   parasite.     In  fact,   many  writers   call 

Texas  fever  Cattle  Malaria.    This  germ  spends  one  part 

of  its  existence  in  the  common  cattle  tick  and  the  other 

part  in  the  blood  of  cattle.     The  germ  is  conveyed  from 

one  animal  to  another  and  injected  into  the  blood  by  the 

bite  of  the  tick  very  similar  to  the  manner  in  which  the 

malarial  germ  is  carried  to  a  person  and  injected  into  the 

blood  by  a  mosquito.     It  has  been  demonstrated  again 

and  again  that  if  cattle  be  kept  free  from  ticks,  they  will 

not  have  Texas  fever.     On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been 


FIG.  29.  —  Trichinella 
spiralis  embedded 
in  human  muscle, 
much  enlarged. 


74  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

repeatedly  demonstrated  that  this  fever  can  be  given  to 
cattle  by  putting  ticks  on  them.  Exactly  similar  facts 
have  been  demonstrated  in  regard  to  human  malaria  and 
mosquitoes.  And  these  experiments  constitute  our  last 
and  final  proof  of  the  relation  between  malaria  and 
mosquitoes. 

The  region  known  as  the  Campagna  near  the  city  of 
Rome,  Italy,  is  a  low,  marshy,  wet  area,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  malarious  regions  in  Italy,  if  not  in  the  world. 
It  is  not  at  all  a  thickly  settled  region,  because  people 
will  not  and  cannot  live  there  on  account  of  chills  and 
fevers,  especially  in  the  autumn  during  the  wet  season. 
Here,  if  anywhere,  was  a  good  place  in  which  to  test  the 
whole  question  of  the  relation  of  mosquitoes  to  malaria 
in  a  practical  and  convincing  manner.  Here  was  the 
water,  the  marsh,  the  bad  air,  the  mosquitoes,  and  the 
malaria.  If  people  could  live  in  the  midst  of  the  Cam- 
pagna, breathe  the  bad  air,  get  wet,  and  undergo  all  the 
conditions  of  life  there  with  one  exception,  namely,  keep 
free  from  mosquitoes  and  their  bites,  and  yet  escape 
malaria,  it  would  certainly  convince  the  most  skeptical. 
Exactly  this  has  been  done. 

Two  English  physicians,  Sambon  and  Low,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1900  determined  to  satisfy  themselves  and  the 
world  in  a  practical  way  of  the  part  that  the  mosquito 
plays  in  malaria.  During  the  summer,  they  caused  to  be 
built  in  the  worst  part  of  the  Campagna  a  small,  one- 
story,  five-room  house,  the  windows  and  doors  of  which 
were  tightly  screened  with  wire  netting  so  that  no  mosqui- 
toes could  possibly  enter.  Here  both  physicians  lived  and 
worked,  for  they  had  their  instruments  with  them,  during 
the  late  summer  and  autumn  while  the  rainv  and  most 


MOSQUITOES  75 

malarial  season  was  on.  The  house  stood  near  the  banks 
of  a  canal  in  which  was  an  abundance  of  the  larvae  of 
Anopheles.  They  went  out  during  the  day ;  at  times 
allowed  themselves  to  become  wet  to  the  skin ;  left  the 
windows  open  at  night  so  that  the  bad  air  could  enter  and 
circulate  all  through  the  house ;  in  fact,  they  did  every- 
thing that  an  ordinary  inhabitant  would  do,  with  one 
exception ;  namely,  they  went  into  the  house  before  six 
o'clock  every  day  and  so  evaded  being  bitten  by  Anopheles 
mosquitoes.  It  must  also  be  mentioned  that  they  took 
no  quinine  or  other  preventive  medicines  against  malaria. 
It  was  said  that  the  critical  test  would  come  when  the 
rainy  season  began  in  the  autumn.  At  this  time,  the 
people  living  under  ordinary  conditions  suffered  much 
from  chills  and  fever.  But  through  it  all,  these  two  phy- 
sicians developed  not  the  remotest  trace  of  chills  or  fever. 
It  was  certainly  a  remarkable  and  triumphant  vindication 
of  the  labors  and  conclusions  of  Laveran,  Ross,  Celli,  and 
many  others.  But  this  is  not  all.  There  yet  lacked  one 
more  link  in  this  chain  of  evidence.  The  chain  had  been 
surely  forged  link  by  link  during  all  these  years  since  1880 
through  the  persistent  and  brilliant  researches  of  the  men 
mentioned  above  and  now  came  the  forging  of  the  last 
link  that  vindicated  their  wisdom. 

A  son  of  the  renowned  Manson,  at  that  time  living  in 
London  and  who  had  not  been  in  a  malarious  country 
since  childhood  and  was  therefore  as  free  from  the  disease 
as  one  could  well  be,  offered  himself  as  a  subject  for  the 
forging  of  this  last  link.  Bastianelli,  the  famous  Italian 
whom  we  have  mentioned  before,  procured  some  Anopheles 
mosquitoes  and  turned  them  loose  upon  a  man  in  Rome 
suffering  from  malaria.  They,  of  course,  bit  the  man  many 


76  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

times,  sucking  his  blood  and  thereby  getting  the  malarial 
germ  into  their  stomachs.  These  identical  mosquitoes 
were  then  sent  to  London,  England,  and  there  allowed 
to  bite  Manson.  In  the  regular  course  of  time,  he  was 
taken  with  a  well-marked  case  of  malaria  and,  moreover, 
when  his  blood  was  examined  the  well-known  germs  were 
found  in  the  red  corpuscles.  Finally,  the  thing  was  done. 
It  had  been  actually  proved  that  men  could  keep  free 
from  malaria  by  keeping  free  from  mosquitoes  and  their 
bites,  and  lastly  it  had  been  proved  that  the  bites  of 
Anopheles  mosquitoes  would  actually  produce  malaria 
in  a  man  not  previously  suffering  from  it. 


THE  REAL  NATURE  OF  MALARIA 

Within  the  last  generation  tremendous  strides  have  been 
made  in  the  realms  of  both  pure  and  applied  science ; 
and  if  more  progress  can  be  said  to  have  been  made  in 
one  domain  of  science  than  in  another,  it  will  have  to  be 
said  of  that  of  medicine.  Moreover,  with  all  the  remark- 
able advances  made  in  medicine  perhaps  no  late  discovery 
in  that  field  has  aroused  more  general  interest  than  the 
discovery  in  1880  of  the  causal  germ  of  malaria  by  the 
French  physician  Laveran,  together  with  the  later  demon- 
stration by  Ross  that  this  germ  is  communicated  to  human 
beings  through  the  agency  of  certain  kinds  of  mosquitoes. 
When  Laveran  announced  that  he  had  discovered  a 
minute  organism  living  in  the  red  cells  of  the  blood  and 
destroying  them,  thereby  causing  the  disease,  malaria, 
he  was  not  believed.  Later,  however,  his  statements 
were  corroborated  by  other  reputable  investigators,  who 
had  without  doubt  seen  this  same  tiny  parasite  in  the 


MOSQUITOES  77 

blood  corpuscles.  Since  that  time  the  work  has  been 
duplicated  and  verified  by  many  reliable  scientific  workers 
here  and  in  Europe.  So  that  now  we  know  malaria  is 
caused  by  a  very  minute  animal  parasite  living  in  the  red 
cells  of  the  blood  and  destroying  them  by  the  millions. 
The  life  history  of  the  parasite  has  been  carefully  traced 
in  the  blood  of  man  and  in  the  body  of  the  mosquito. 

History  of  the  parasite  in  man.  —  We  will  suppose 
that  one  of  these  tiny  parasites  (sporozoif)  has  found  its 
way  into  a  person's  blood  from  the  bite  of  a  malarial 
mosquito.  If  conditions  are  favorable,  it  soon  goes  inside 
of  a  red  blood  cell,  where  it  lives  and  grows,  gradually 
destroying  the  contents  of  the  red  corpuscle,  and  finally 
taking  up  much  of  the  space  inside  the  cell.  Finally, 
the  parasite  (now  called  a  schizont)  inside  the  blood  cell 
has  grown  all  it  will,  and  it  then  divides  into  several 
distinct  individuals  (merozoits)  commonly  called  spores. 

The  wall  of  the  red  blood  corpuscle  then  bursts  and  these 
parasites  are  set  free  in  the  liquid  part  of  the  blood. 
Now  if  a  person  has  a  severe  case  of  malaria,  there  may  be 
several  millions  of  these  parasites  in  the  blood,  each  one 
in  its  own  red  blood  cell.  Moreover,  all  the  parasites 
become  mature,  form  spores,  and  burst  out  of  these  red 
cells  at  just  about  the  same  time.  It  is  just  at  the  time 
that  the  multitudes  of  minute  parasites  burst  forth  into 
the  liquid  part  of  the  blood  that  the  chills  and  rigors  be- 
gin. There  are  at  least  three  kinds  of  malarial  parasites : 
(1)  the  parasite  that  forms  spores  and  causes  chills  every 
two  days,  thus  producing  tertian  fever;  (2)  the  parasite 
that  forms  spores  and  causes  chills  every  three  days,  thus 
producing  quartan  fever;  (3)  the  parasite  that  causes 
malignant  fever  which  frequently  becomes  very  serious. 


78  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  parasites  set  free  in  the  blood  may  enter  other  red 
blood  cells,  grow,  reach  maturity,  and  burst  fortli  again. 
These,  in  turn,  may  go  through  the  same  course  again 
and  again,  producing  chills  and  fevers  incessantly  unless 
destroyed  by  some  agency.  Finally,  there  appears  in  the 
serum  of  the  blood  the  male  and  female  individuals  of 
the  parasite,  but  these  cannot  develop  farther  until  taken 
into  the  body  of  a  mosquito. 

History  of  the  parasite  in  the  body  of  a  mosquito.  — 
Suppose  while  the  blood  of  a  malarious  person  is  full  of  the 
minute  parasites  he  should  be  bitten  by  a  mosquito.  As 
the  mosquito  sucks  up  the  blood  some  of  the  parasites 
would  be  sure  to  be  taken  up  with  it.  After  being  sucked 
up  into  the  beak  of  the  mosquito  they  are  carried  to  the 
stomach  of  the  insect  and  there  pass  through  a  sexual 
process.  They  then  enter  into  the  cells  of  the  stomach 
walls,  undergo  certain  changes,  and  finally  pass  through 
the  stomach  walls  of  the  mosquito,  undergo  complicated 
changes  in  the  body  cavity  of  the  insect,  and  eventually 
find  their  way  to  the  salivary  glands,  from  which  they 
are  injected  through  the  beak  into  the  blood  of  the  person 
who  is  being  bitten  by  the  mosquito.  There  they  again 
enter  the  red  blood  cells,  pursuing  the  course  already 
described  and  causing  chills  and  fevers. 

Summary.  —  To  sum  up,  then,  malaria  is  caused  by  a 
minute  animal  parasite  that  lives  within  the  red  blood 
corpuscles  of  human  beings.  This  parasite  destroys 
millions  of  the  red  blood  cells  that  are  so  necessary  to 
life  and,  in  addition,  secretes  certain  poisonous  substances 
known  as  toxins,  which  lodge  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Its  life  history  has  been  traced  step  by  step  by  many 
careful  observers. 


MOSQUITOES  79 

It  has  been  found  that  the  parasite  goes  through  certain 
stages  in  the  blood  of  man,  but  that  finally  it  is  taken  up 
by  mosquitoes  and  in  the  bodies  of  these  insects  it  goes 
through  certain  stages  quite  different  from  those  gone 
through  in  man. 

Finally,  we  know  that  the  parasite  is  injected  into  the 
blood  of  a  person  by  a  certain  kind  of  mosquito. 

Since  this  parasite  lives  only  in  man  and  the  mosquito, 
it  can  get  from  one  person  to  another  only  through  the 
agency  of  these  insects.  In  other  words,  a  person  once 
free  from  the  malarial  parasite  will  remain  free  just  so 
long  as  the  bites  of  certain  species  of  mosquitoes  can  be 
avoided. 

Number  of  germs  in  the  blood.  —  The  number  of 
malarial  germs  in  the  blood  may  vary  at  different  times. 
The  more  germs  there  are,  the  harder  will  be  the  chills 
and  fever  as  a  rule.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  more  in- 
fected mosquitoes  there  are  to  bite  a  person,  the  more 
germs  there  will  be  in  the  blood  and  the  more  severe  will 
be  the  case  of  malaria.  This  is  important  to  bear  in 
mind  because  it  is  closely  connected  with  what  we  shall 
have  to  say  in  regard  to  methods  of  prevention.  Ross 
says  he  "computes  that  something  like  a  quarter  of  a 
billion  of  them  must  be  present  to  produce  fever." 

There  is  another  fact  that  we  should  also  bear  in  mind, 
namely,  that  the  germs  may  actually  be  present  in  the 
body  and  yet  not  produce  chills  and  fevers.  They  may 
lie  dormant  in  the  body,  as  it  were,  for  a  long  time  and 
then  suddenly  become  active,  increase  and  produce  fever. 
Under  such  a  condition  of  affairs  circumstances  might 
seem  to  prove  that  a  person  could  have  malaria  without 
being  bitten  by  mosquitoes.  It  must  be  remembered, 


80  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

however,  that  that  person  was  bitten  at  some  time  by  an 
Anopheles  mosquito,  else  the  germs  could  never  have 
gained  access  to  the  blood. 


RELATION  OF  MOSQUITOES  TO  YELLOW  FEVER 

That  yellow  fever  is  not  a  contagious  disease,  but  one 
that,  like  malaria,  is  carried  from  one  individual  to  another 
only  through  the  agency  of  a  mosquito,  has  been  finally 
and  authoritatively  settled.  It  must  be  said,  however, 
that  no  one  has  yet  discovered  the  parasite  that  causes 
yellow  fever.  It  is  either  too  small  to  be  seen  with  any 
lens  now  made  or  it  inhabits  some  organs  of  the  body  not 
suspected  or  its  habits  are  entirely  different  from  any  other 
parasite  with  which  we  are  familiar.  In  any  case  the 
germ  has  eluded  all  efforts  to  locate  it  and  scientists  are 
ignorant  regarding  its  real  nature,  habits,  and  appearance. 


PROOFS  THAT  YELLOW  FEVER  IS  CARRIED  BY  MOSQUITOES 

Carlos  Finlay,  as  early  as  1881,  promulgated  the  theory 
that  mosquitoes  transmit  yellow  fever  and  he  carried  on 
some  experiments  at  that  time  in  which  he  claimed  to 
have  conveyed  the  disease  from  yellow  fever  patients 
to  non-immunes  through  the  bites  of  mosquitoes.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  the  early  part  of  1900  that  more 
serious  experiments  were  undertaken  to  determine  the 
actual  agents  in  the  transmission  of  yellow  fever,  and 
the  relation  of  this  disease  to  mosquitoes  if  any  existed. 
During  this  year  a  medical  commission  from  the  United 
States  Army,  consisting  of  Walter  C.  Reed,  James 


MOSQUITOES  81 

Carroll,  Jesse  W.  Lazear,  and  A.  Agramonte,  was  sent 
to  Cuba  to  investigate  the  whole  question. 

In  a  field  near  Quemados,  Cuba,  this  commission  of 
surgeons  erected  a  small  wooden  building  tightly  ceiled 
and  with  the  windows  and  doors  closely  screened  so  that 
no  mosquitoes  could  enter.  In  this  house,  during  a  total 
of  sixty-three  days,  seven  non-immune  men  were  kept. 
These  men  slept  in  beds  furnished  with  the  unwashed 
pillow-slips,  sheets,  and  blankets  that  had  previously 
been  used  on  the  beds  of  genuine  yellow  fever  patients  in 
Havana  and  elsewhere.  This  bedding  was  actually 
stained  with  the  excretions  of  the  fever  patients.  Neither 
during  that  time  nor  subsequently  did  one  of  these  seven 
men  develop  a  case  of  yellow  fever.  This  indicated  to 
the  surgeons,  beyond  much  question,  that  yellow  fever 
is  not  carried  in  clothing,  as  had  always  been  held.  This 
experiment  concluded  the  first  phase  of  the  work. 

Another  house  was  built  in  this  same  field  and  divided 
by  wire  screen  from  floor  to  ceiling,  into  two  rooms. 
The  doors  and  windows  of  each  room  were  closely  screened 
with  fine  wire  netting  so  that  no  mosquitoes  could 
enter.  All  bedding  and  material  carried  into  the  rooms 
were  disinfected  by  steam,  which  precluded  any  possi- 
bility of  the  yellow  fever  germ  being  present  in  the 
bedding  or  clothing. 

In  one  of  the  rooms,  mosquitoes  of  a  certain  kind  that 
had  previously  bitten  patients  sick  with  yellow  fever  were 
placed.  In  the  other  room  none  were  allowed.  Non- 
immune  men  were  placed  in  both  rooms.  Of  those  in 
the  room  containing  no  mosquitoes,  not  one  had  yellow 
fever.  Of  those  in  the  other  room  that  were  bitten  by 
the  infected  mosquitoes,  six  out  of  seven  developed  cases 


82  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

of  genuine  yellow  fever.  This  indicated  beyond  much 
question  that  mosquitoes  were  transmitters  of  this  disease. 
These  experiments  have  been  extended  and  duplicated 
many  times  with  the  same  results,  so  that  we  are  jus- 
tified in  believing  that  a  certain  mosquito  known  as 
Aedes  calopus  is  the  sole  and  only  agent  in  the  trans- 
mission of  yellow  fever. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  MOSQUITOES 

1900.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  mosquitoes  of  the   United  States. 
Bull.  25,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-70. 

1901.     Mosquitoes;    how  they  live;    how  they  carry  disease; 

etc.     Book,  241  pp. 

1901.  HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Some  mosquitoes  of  Mississippi  and  how 
to  deal  with  them.     Bull.  74,  Miss.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  1-31. 

1902.  Ross,  RONALD.  —  Mosquito  brigades  and  how  to  organize 
them.     Book,  100  pp. 

1902.     Malarial  fever,  its  cause,  prevention  and  treatment. 

Book,  68  pp. 

1903.  SMITH,  J.  B.  —  Mosquitocides.  Bull.  40,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  96-108. 

1903.  HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Relation  of  malaria  to  agriculture  and 
other  industries  of  the  South.     Pop.  Sc.  Mon.,  Vol.  62,  April, 
pp.  521-525. 

1904.  SMITH,  J.  B.  —  Report  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Agri.  Expt. 
Stat.  on  the  mosquitoes,  etc.     482  pp. 

1904.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Mosquitoes  or  Culicidse  of  New  York  State. 
N.  Y.  State  Mus.,  Bull.  79. 

1905.  HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Notes  on  some  Mississippi  mosquitoes. 
Ent.  News,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  281. 

1905.  BLANCHARD,   R.  —  Les   moustiques,    histoire    naturelle    et 
m&licale.     Book,  673  pp. 

1906.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Mosquito  control.     21st  Rept.  N.  Y.  State 
Ent.,  pp.  109-116. 

1906.    QUAYLE,  H.  J.  —  Mosquito  control.    Bull.  178,  Calif.  Expt. 
Stat.,  pp.  1-55. 


MOSQUITOES  83 

1907.    KELLY,  H.  A. —Walter  Reed  and  yellow  fever.     Book, 
310  pp. 

1907.  MITCHELL,  Evelyn  G.  —  Mosquito  life.    Book,  281  pp. 

1908.  SEAL,  W.  P.  —  Fishes  in  their   relation  to   the  mosquito 
problem.     Bull,  of  the  Bu.  of  Fisheries,  Vol.  28,  Part  2,  pp. 
833-838. 

1909.  BOYCE,  R.  W.  —  Mosquito  or  man  ?     Book,  267  pp. 

1909.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Economic  loss  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States  through  insects  that  cause  disease.     Bull.  78,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1^0. 

1910.  DOANE,  R.  W.  —  Insects  and  disease.     Book,  227  pp. 
1910.     Ross,  RONALD.  —  The  prevention  of  malaria.     Book,  669 

pp. 
1910.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Prevention  and  remedial  work  against 

mosquitoes.     Bull.  88,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-126. 
1912.    HOWARD,  L.  O.,  DYAR,  H.  G.,  and  KNAB,  FREDERICK.  — 

The  mosquitoes  of  North  and  Central  America  and  the  West 

Indies.    Vols.  I  and  II,  Carnegie  Institution,  Washington,  D.C. 


CHAPTER  IV 

METHODS  OF  DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOS- 
QUITOES 

THE  best  way  to  escape  annoyance  from  these  insects 
and  to  prevent  the  carriage  of  disease  by  them  is  to 
destroy  them. 

No  one  has  yet  devised  practical  methods  of  destroying 
the  adult  mosquitoes,  hence  all  of  our  efforts  are  best 
directed  against  the  immature  stages  of  these  pests; 
namely,  egg,  larval,  and  pupal  stages. 

The  methods  taken  to  destroy  mosquitoes  fall  into  three 
distinct  classes ;  namely,  the  drainage  of  bodies  of  water 
liable  to  contain  eggs  and  wrigglers,  the  application  of  oil 
to  bodies  of  water  that  cannot  be  drained,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  fish  into  pools  that  cannot  be  drained  or  oiled. 

At  the  very  start  one  should  find  out,  if  possible,  what 
kind  of  mosquito  is  causing  trouble  and  then  find  some- 
thing about  its  habits  and  breeding  places.  If  it  is  a  far- 
flying  species  coming  from  far  distant  saltwater  pools, 
make  up  your  mind  to  endure  it  until  it  disappears.  If 
it  is  a  local,  fresh-water  species,  then  hunt  out  its  breeding 
places,  and  use  some  of  the  methods  outlined  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

DRAINAGE 

This  remedy  hardly  needs  discussion.     It  is  obvious 
that  if  a  pool  be  drained  or  a  bucket  or  barrel  be  emptied, 
84 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  85 

no  mosquitoes  can  breed  there.  Tanks  not  especially 
needed  should  be  taken  down.  This  should  always  be 
done  whenever  possible,  because  a  tank  down  and  out 
of  the  way  will  be  sure  to  give  no  trouble.  All  receptacles 
like  buckets,  and  barrels,  should  be  looked  after  and 
emptied  at  least  once  a  week,  and  permanently  if  possible. 
Permanent  ditches  that  trouble  us  most  should  be  tiled 
and  the  water  conducted  a  long  distance  from  the  house. 
In  many  cases,  it  is  much  easier  to  draw  a  wagon  load  of 
earth  or  even  more  to  fill  up  a  small  shallow  pool  than  to 
dig  an  outlet.  Draining  is  the  most  desirable  means  of 
fighting  mosquitoes  because  if  once  well  done,  it  is  always 
done  and  needs  no  attention  afterward.  There  are  hun- 
dreds of  swamps  and  marshes  near  habitations  that  could 
be  drained  with  comparatively  little  expense.  When  we 
come  to  realize  fully  the  discomfort,  sickness,  and  deaths 
that  occur  from  malaria  because  of  the  presence,  in  the 
vicinity,  of  a  small  swamp  in  which  malarial  mosquitoes 
develop,  the  small  matter  of  the  expenditure  of  a  little 
money  will  hardly  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  only 
question  seriously  considered  will  be  the  one  concerning 
the  best  method  of  drainage. 

FISH  VERSUS  MOSQUITOES 

There  are  often  pools  or  bodies  of  water  that  cannot, 
for  one  reason  or  another,  be  drained.  There  are  also 
pools  and  ponds  of  water  used  for  ornamental  purposes 
that  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  and  enjoyment  of  a  land- 
scape but  that  serve  as  prolific  breeding  grounds  for 
mosquitoes.  It  is  not  desirable  to  drain  such  pools  nor 
is  it  feasible  to  treat  them  with  oils  or  other  substances 


86  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

on  account  of  the  deleterious  effect  that  may  result  to 
the  plants  growing  in  the  water. 

Much  of  the  drinking  water  for  stock  in  many  of  the  states 
in  this  country  is  caught  and  stored  in  surface  pools.  The 
stock  is  allowed  access  to  these  pools  at  any  and  all  times. 
These  drinking  pools  often  become  breeding  places  for 
mosquitoes.  The  water  cannot  be  drained  away  because 
it  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  stock.  Neither  is  it 
desirable  to  pour  oil  on  the  surface  because  the  water  is 
thereby  rendered  unpalatable  and  obnoxious  to  the  animals. 
In  such  cases,  the  best  way  of  controlling  the  mosquitoes 
is  the  introduction  of  certain  kinds  of  fishes  into  the  pools. 

In  order  for  a  species  of  fish  to  be  effective  in  the  control 
of  mosquitoes  it  must  possess  certain  characteristics.  In 
general,  it  should  be  a  small  fish  so  that  it  can  reach  the 
shallower  parts  of  the  pool.  It  should  also  be  a  top- 
feeder,  a  voracious  feeder  on  mosquito  larvae,  and  a  pro- 
lific breeder.  Finally,  it  should  have  a  wide  geographical 
range  in  order  to  make  it  available  for  as  many  localities 
as  possible.  It  is  evident  that  but  few  species  of  fishes 
possess  the  foregoing  combination  of  qualities. 

It  would  appear  from  a  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  the 
larvae  of  Anopheles  that  they  are  much  less  easily  held 
in  check  or  destroyed  than  the  larvae  of  Culex.  The 
larvae  of  Anopheles  are  found  especially  in  quiet  waters, 
and  in  ornamental  pools  among  the  lily  pads,  duckweed, 
and  other  plants.  They  simulate  remarkably  well  their 
surroundings  and  are  thus  screened  from  observation. 
Moreover,  they  live  upon  the  surface,  lying  and  mov- 
ing in  a  horizontal  plane.  It  is  evident  that  only 
those  fishes  that  are  small  and  can  penetrate  to  the 
spaces  of  water  among  the  lily  leaves  and  duckweed  will 


DESTROYING   AND   REPELLING    MOSQUITOES     87 

ever  be  able  to  give  relief  from  Anopheles  mosquitoes. 
Moreover,  the  fishes  must  be  top-feeders  in  order  to  find 
the  larvae  lying  on  top  of  the  water. 

The  goldfish  is  a  good  species  for  introduction  into 
pools,  especially  ornamental  plant  pools.  This  fish  is 
used  in  Japan  for  this  purpose.  In  fact,  goldfishes,  when 
grown  commercially  in  that  country,  are  fed  largely  on  the 
larvae  of  mosquitoes.  W.  L.  Underwood  describes  the 
work  of  goldfish  in  devouring  mosquito  larvae  as  follows : 
"  I  took  from  the  pond  a  small  goldfish  about  three  inches 
long  and  placed  it  in  an  aquarium  where  it  could,  if  it 
would,  feed  upon 
mosquito  larvae  and 
still  be  under  care- 
ful observation. 
The  result  was  as 
I  had  anticipated. 
On  the  first  day, 

owing     perhaps     to  FIG.  30.  —  Roach  or  golden  shiner. 

the  change  of  en- 
vironment, and  to  being  rather  easily  disturbed  in  its  new 
quarters,  this  goldfish  ate  eleven  larvae  only  in  three  hours ; 
but  the  next  day  twenty  were  devou.ed  in  one  hour; 
and  as  the  fish  became  more  at  home  the  'wrigglers' 
disappeared  in  short  order  whenever  they  were  dropped 
into  the  water.  On  one  occasion  twenty  were  eaten  in 
one  minute,  and  forty-eight  within  five  minutes."  Un- 
fortunately goldfish  grow  rather  large  and  tend  to  become 
cannibalistic. 

The  roach,  or  golden  shiner  (Fig.  30),  is  also  an  admirable 
fish  for  pools  and  ponds.  It  is  widely  distributed  and 
is  very  abundant.  Moreover,  it  is  a  very  active  fish, 


88  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

always  scouting  the  waters  in  search  of  food.  It  is  always 
found  in  large  numbers  in  muddy  pools,  grassy  ponds,  and 
weedy  bayous. 

A  species  of  fish  that  perhaps  meets  the  requirements 
most  nearly  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  wide  distri- 
bution is  the  top-minnow,  Gambusia  affinis  (Fig.  31). 
This  minnow  does  not  become  more  than  one  and  one-half 
to  two  inches  in  length.  It  is  active  and  voracious  and 
feeds  near  the  top,  penetrating  to  the  shallowest  parts 


FIG.  31.  —  Top-minnow.     (X  1}.) 

of  the  pool  about  the  edges.  Here  it  is  safe  from  its 
larger  enemies  and,  at  the  same  time,  is  in  the  presence  of 
desirable  food.  It  constitutes  a  most  admirable  fish  for 
the  destruction  of  mosquitoes  in  the  Southern  states. 
It  occurs  from  the  Potomac  River  and  southern  Illinois 
southward  and  west  to  Texas.  Whether  this  minnow 
can  be  acclimated  in  northern  waters  is  not  yet  known. 

There  are  also  two  small  species  of  sunfish,  of  the  genus 
Enneacanthus,  that  seem  well  suited  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  widely  distributed,  are  active  in  pursuit  of  prey, 
and  live  among  water  plants. 

In  an  admirable  paper  on  "  Fishes  and  their  relation  to 
the  mosquito  problem,"  W.  P.  Seal  sums  up  the  whole 
question  as  follows:  "The  writer  has  come  to  the  con- 


DESTROYING   AND   REPELLING   MOSQUITOES     89 

elusion,  after  many  experiments  in  small  ponds,  that  a 
combination  of  the  goldfish,  which  is  ornamental  and  useful 
in  the  open  water,  the  roach  or  shiner,  which  is  a  very 
active  species,  two  small  species  of  sunfish,  which  live 
among  plants,  and  the  top-minnow  would  probably  prove 
to  be  more  effective  in  preventing  mosquitoes  breeding 
than  any  other  fishes." 

OIL   AS   A   REMEDY   FOR  MOSQUITOES 

The  power  that  oil  has  to  kill  the  larvae  and  pupae  of 
mosquitoes  has  been  known  for  some  time.  Its  practical 
use  against  these  insects  has  been  of  comparatively  recent 
date. 

How  it  kills.  —  If  oil  be  poured  upon  water,  it  will  sooner 
or  later  spread  evenly  over  the  surface  in  a  thin  film. 
This  film  has  a  comparatively  strong  tension,  and  speak- 
ing from  the  standpoint  of  an  insect,  is  very  difficult  to 
break.  The  larva  and  pupae  of  the  mosquitoes,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  breathe  air  direct  by  thrusting  the 
ends  of  the  respiratory  tubes  out  of  the  water.  As  they 
come  up  beneath  the  oil  film,  to  obtain  air,  they  are  unable 
to  push  their  tubes  through  the  oil,  and  thus  are  completely 
shut  off  from  the  air  and  in  a  short  time  drown  from  suffoca- 
tion. It  may  also  be  said  that  the  oil,  as  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  respiratory  tubes,  produces  injury  which 
hastens  death.  If  any  eggs  are  lying  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  are  touched  by  the  oil,  they  are  destroyed. 
Likewise  the  adult  female  mosquitoes  are  caught  in  the 
oil  and  killed  when  depositing  eggs. 

Kinds  of  oil  to  use.  —  In  all  my  experiments  ordinary 
kerosene  oil,  such  as  is  used  for  illuminating  purposes, 


90  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

was  used.  In  the  first  place,  ditches  with  their  strong 
currents  need  a  light  oil  that  will  spread  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  In  the  second  place,  petroleum  has  cost  us 
just  as  much  as  the  refined  oil,  even  if  bought  by  the  barrel. 
For  bodies  of  water  that  have  no  currents  a  heavy  oil 
might  be  superior  to  ordinary  kerosene  because  the  former 
would  not  evaporate  so  quickly  and  thus  need  not  be 
applied  so  often.  On  the  other  hand,  an  oil  too  heavy 
will  not  spread  easily,  but  will  gather  in  spots  here  and  there 
over  the  surface,  thus  losing  its  effectiveness.  Howard 
says,  "so  long  as  the  oil  flows  readily  and  is  cheap  enough, 
the  end  is  gained,  provided  it  is  not  too  light  and  does  not 
evaporate  too  rapidly."  Other  investigators  have  found, 
that  what  is  known  as  "light  fuel  oil"  is  the  most  satis- 
factory. 

Amount  of  oil  to  use.  —  Careful  experiments  have  shown 
that,  in  general,  one  ounce  of  kerosene  is  sufficient  for 
every  fifteen  square  feet  of  surface.  One-half  of  a  tea- 
cupful  for  a  barrel  is  amply  sufficient.  If  the  oil  is 
applied  with  a  spray  pump  and  fine  nozzle,  smaller 
quantities  will  be  used. 

How  to  apply  oil.  —  For  small  pools,  ditches,  and 
tanks,  a  five-gallon  knapsack  spraying  machine  (Fig.  32) 
is  almost  ideal.  The  sprayer  should  have  ten  or  twelve 
feet  of  hose  attached  and  the  hose  should  be  furnished 
with  a  good  nozzle  tied  to  a  pole  about  six  feet  long. 
With  the  pole  the  operator  can  reach  both  sides  of  a 
ditch  and  all  sides  of  a  tank  without  changing  position. 

In  cases  of  barrels,  cisterns,  and  cans,  the  oil  may  be 
poured  on  or  thrown  on  from  a  cup,  dipper,  or  other  re- 
ceptacle. In  fact,  it  may  be  applied  to  the  surface  in 
many  cases  from  a  bucket  sprinkler. 


DESTROYING   AND   REPELLING   MOSQUITOES     91 

How  often  to  apply  the  oil.  —  It  has  been  shown  in 
our  study  of  the  life  history  of  Culex  pipiens  that  the  entire 
life  cycle  may  be  passed  in  ten  or  twelve  days.  In  the 
case  of  Anopheles,  the  life  cycle  lasts  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  days.  These  facts  alone  indicate  the  necessity 


Fio.  32.  —  Spraying  a  ditch  for  mosquitoes  with  a  knapsack  sprayer. 

of  frequent  spraying.  I  have  found  that  once  in  two 
weeks  is  often  enough  for  sewage  ditches.  No  doubt 
the  oil  is  effective  along  the  shallow  edges  of  these  ditches 
for  some  time  after  it  is  applied.  That  is  to  say,  the  oil 
along  the  edges  does  not  run  off  immediately  because  of 
no  current.  On  quiet  pools  oil  is  effective  for  several  days 
after  it  is  applied  because  it  does  not  readily  evaporate. 


92  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  an  application  of  oil  should  be 
made  at  least  twice  a  month  to  be  surely  effective.  Pos- 
sibly in  certain  cases  oftener,  especially  in  drains  where 
the  current  is  fairly  strong. 

Is  the  pouring  of  oil  into  water-closets  effective  in 
sewer  ditches  ?  —  It  has  been  asked  of  the  writer  so  many 
times  whether  or  not  the  same  thing  could  be  accomplished 
by  pouring  oil  into  the  closets  and  allowing  it  to  run  down 
the  sewer  pipes,  as  by  spraying,  that  it  seemed  worth 
while  to  give  this  point  considerable  attention.  Ac- 
cordingly, I  poured  two  quarts  of  illuminating  oil  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  a  main  sewage  ditch  near  the 
mouth  of  the  tile  to  watch  its  effect  below.  A  fairly  quiet 
pool  about  two  rods  long  and  about  fifteen  rods  below 
the  outlet  was  selected  as  the  first  place  of  observation. 
Both  sides  of  the  pool  were  lined  with  multitudes  of  larvae 
and  pupae  lying  in  the  shallows  and  in  the  miniature  bays 
hollowed  out  of  the  sides  of  the  bank.  By  the  time  the 
oil  reached  the  pool  it  was  well  distributed.  The  result 
was,  however,  that  the  current  was  too  strong  to  allow 
it  time  to  spread  into  the  quieter  parts  and  bays  of  the 
pool.  It  was  carried  for  the  most  part  straight  by. 
Many  of  the  larvae  and  pupse,  however,  lying  next  to  the 
current  were  so  greatly  disturbed  that  they  blundered 
into  the  middle  of  the  stream  and  were  drowned  beneath 
the  film  of  oil.  In  a  second  and  similar  pool,  about  ten 
rods  farther  down,  the  effect  was  noted  again.  The  oil 
had  spread  out  even  more  by  this  time,  but  the  effect  was 
about  the  same.  The  majority  of  larvae  and  pupae  escaped 
because  the  current  gave  the  oil  insufficient  time  to  spread 
over  them.  Nevertheless,  it  is  thought  that  several 
applications  of  oil,  say  one  or  two  hours  apart,  would 


DESTROYING   AND   REPELLING    MOSQUITOES      93 

kill  the  larger  part  of  larvaj  and  pupse  in  such  pools.  A 
similar  experiment  repeated  in  another  ditch  gave  pre- 
cisely similar  results  with  one  additional  point  worthy 
of  note.  In  one  of  the  pools  carefully  observed,  a  thin 
mass  of  Algse  and  scum  rested  over  quite  an  area  adja- 
cent to  one  of  the  banks.  In  it  were  many  larvae  and 
pupae.  Into  this  mass  the  oil  never  penetrated,  and  in 
my  opinion  with  that  current  never  would,  no  matter 
how  many  applications  were  made. 

It  would  seem  then,  that  the  only  sure  and  quick  remedy 
for  such  places  is  to  spray  the  oil  on  the  surface.  By 
this  method  many  adults  are  killed  at  the  same  time. 
If  poured  into  the  sewer,  several  successive  applications 
must  be  made  to  be  in  any  degree  effective,  and  even  then 
in  pools  where  there  was  algal  slime  it  would  have  little 
effect.  It  is  evident,  that  if  the  sewer  pipes  empty  into 
pools  or  bodies  of  water  with  no  current,  the  above  con- 
clusions would  not  apply. 

FUMIGATING  ROOMS    TO  KILL  MOSQUITOES 

It  is  often  desired  to  free  a  house  entirely  of  these 
insects.  The  best  and  most  effective  way  to  do  this  is 
to  fumigate  the  rooms  with  some  substance  which  will 
either  stupefy  or  kill  them.  Many  substances  are  used 
by  campers  and  hunters  to  drive  insects  away,  but  for 
fumigating  houses  quite  different  materials  are  used. 
Probably  sulfur  is  most  universally  used,  while  pyre- 
thrum,  culicide,  and  a  few  other  substances  are  occasionally 
tried. 

Pyrethrum.  —  Pyrethrum  was  originally  produced  in 
Asiatic  countries  only.  Now  the  plant  from  which  it  is 


94  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

made  is  grown  in  California  and  the  product  is  known  as 
buhach.  Buhach,  pyrethrum,  Persian  insect  powder, 
and  Dalmatian  powder  are  practically  the  same  thing. 
They  consist  of  the  finely  ground  or  powdered  flower 
heads  of  certain  species  of  chrysanthemum,  Pyrethrum 
cineraricefolium  and  P.  roseum.1 

It  is  difficult  to  secure  pure  pyrethrum  from  the  drug 
stores.  It  is  apt  to  be  diluted  with  various  substances 
that  have  no  value  as  insecticides.  However,  the  pyre- 
thrum  powders  are  used  a  great  deal  for  fighting  house- 
hold insects,  especially  flies  and  mosquitoes.  Usually 
the  powder  is  blown  into  cracks  and  crevices  frequented 
by  the  pests.  The  burning  of  the  powder  in  rooms  as 
a  fumigant  is  also  quite  often  practiced.  The  powder 
may  be  burned  on  coals  or  it  may  be  heaped  in  little  conical 
piles,  which  when  lighted  at  the  top  will  burn.  The  odor 
of  the  burning  pyrethrum  is  inoffensive  to  most  persons 
although  with  some  individuals  it  may  cause  headache. 
When  burned  in  a  closed  room,  it  will  stupefy  all  of  the 
mosquitoes.  It  does  not  actually  kill  all  of  them  and  they 
have  to  be  swept  up  and  burned.  The  odor  of  the  burning 
powder  will  give  relief  from  mosquitoes  on  open  porches 
or  in  open  rooms,  but  in  order  to  receive  the  benefit  one 
has  to  sit  in  the  smoke.  A  pound  of  the  powder  to  1000 
cubic  feet  of  space  has  been  recommended  as  necessary 
to  accomplish  the  desired  results.  This  makes  such  fumi- 
gation rather  expensive,  and  because  the  powder  does  not 
actually  kill  the  insects,  sulfur  is  used  more  extensively. 

Sulfur.  —  On  account  of  its  cheapness  and  effectiveness, 
sulfur  is  the  most  desirable  fumigating  substance  for  mos- 
quitoes. The  room  in  which  the  fumigation  is  to  be  done 

1  Now  put  in  the  genus  Chrysanthemum. 


DESTROYING   AND   REPELLING   MOSQUITOES     95 

should  be  made  as  tight  as  possible  by  stopping  the  cracks 
with  strips  of  paper,  as  explained  in  a  later  chapter  on 
bedbugs.  The  author  has  been  able  to  burn  sulfur  very 
satisfactorily  by  putting  the  required  amount,  2  pounds 
to  1000  cubic  feet  of  space,  in  an  iron  dish  and  pouring 
on  top  half  a  teacupful  of  wood  alcohol.  The  dish  con- 
taining the  burning  sulfur  is  liable  to  become  very  hot 
and  should  be  placed  on  bricks  set  in  a  tub  containing  a 
little  water.  The  sulfur  is  liable  to  boil  over  and  set 
fire  to  the  floor.  The  gas  kills  all  of  the  mosquitoes  and  is 
thus  very  effective.  It,  however,  tarnishes  brass,  nickel, 
and  gilt,  and  articles  made  of  these  materials  should  either 
be  removed  from  the  room  or  covered  with  paper  or  cloth. 

Culicide.  —  In  the  great  fight  against  yellow  fever  in 
New  Orleans  a  compound  of  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of 
carbolic  acid  crystals  and  gum  camphor  was  found 
efficient  in  killing  mosquitoes  in  rooms.  It  is  known  as 
Mims  "Culicide."  Take  one  pound  of  carbolic  acid 
crystals  and  liquefy  by  placing  the  bottle  in  hot  water; 
take  one  pound  of  gum  camphor,  break  into  small  pieces, 
place  in  a  one-quart  jar,  and  as  the  acid  liquefies,  pour  it 
over  the  gum  camphor,  which  will  be  gradually  dissolved. 
When  all  the  acid  has  been  poured  over  the  camphor  and 
the  latter  has  dissolved,  there  will  be  one  full  quart  of 
a  slightly  reddish,  heavy  liquid.  This  is  the  Culicide, 
which  will  remain  in  this  condition  indefinitely,  if  kept 
covered.  Three  ounces  evaporated  in  a  closed  room  will 
suffice  to  kill  all  flies,  mosquitoes,  and  other  insects  in  one 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  space. 

To  evaporate,  it  is  necessary  to  use  heat,  and  an  arrange- 
ment to  do  this  is  easily  improvised  by  a  section  of  stove 
pipe  from  which  triangular  pieces  are  cut  at  the  bottom 


96  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

to  leave  three  legs.  A  series  of  six  holes,  near  the  top, 
provides  for  a  draft,  and  a  tin  pan  or  dish  is  set  on  top 
of  the  pipe  and  holds  the  Culicide,  which  is  heated  by 
the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pipe.  It  will  require  an  ounce  of  alcohol  to  completely 
evaporate  three  ounces  of  Culicide  in  twenty  minutes. 
The  Culicide  is  inflammable,  but  not  explosive.  As  a 
matter  of  safety  it  will  be  better  to  place  the  apparatus 
in  a  tub  of  water  on  two  or  three  bricks,  so  that  in  case 
of  carelessness  there  will  be  no  danger  of  fire.  The  room 
to  be  fumigated  should  be  closed  tightly,  as  recommended 
above,  and  should  be  kept  closed  for  two  hours  at  least. 
This  material  will  not  affect  fabrics  nor  metals,  nor  are 
the  fumes  dangerous  to  human  life.  It  is  not  recom- 
mended that  anybody  remain  within  the  room  while 
fumigation  is  going  on,  but  the  room  can  be  safely  en- 
tered immediately  after  opening,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
to  remain  in  the  room  with  comfort  until  the  evaporation 
or  fumigation  is  thoroughly  under  way.  It  will  be  well 
to  use  only  enough  alcohol  in  the  lamp  to  evaporate  the 
material,  so  that  it  will  go  out  when  its  work  is  done.  The 
flame  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  reach  well  up  toward 
the  tin  dish  used,  so  that  evaporation  may  be  rapid.  It 
should  not  be  used  so  high  as  to  come  out  through  the 
holes  and  so  run  the  risk  of  setting  fire  to  the  material. 

THE   USE   OF   BED   NETS 

In  spite  of  our  best  efforts  there  are  always  a  few  mosqui- 
toes in  certain  regions,  but  there  is  one  good  method  of 
escape  from  them,  and  that  is  by  the  careful  use  of  a  good 
bed  net.  If  a  net  is  arranged  so  that  it  does  not  hang 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  97 

in  folds  and  is  not  too  low  and  close  to  the  sleeper,  there 
is  little  air  excluded.  The  prejudice  against  bed  nets 
and  window  screens,  because  they  are  thought  to  exclude 
a  great  deal  of  air,  is  unfortunate  and  unfounded.  Nets 
and  screens  are  coming  into  common  use  everywhere, 
especially  in  the  South.  The  author  has  slept  under  a  net 
nine  months  in  the  year  and  the  feeling  of  security  it 
gives  is  most  satisfactory. 

There  are  several  essentials  to  success  in  the  use  of  a 
good  bed  net.  First  it  must  be  free  from  rents,  small  as 
well  as  large,  and  long  enough  to  reach  the  floor  on  all 
sides  of  the  bed.  Some  prefer  a  short  net  tucked  under 
the  mattress.  This  is  good  if  the  tucking  is  well  done, 
but  too  often  the  net  is  carelessly  arranged  and  then 
serves  only  as  a  trap.  Do  not  have  a  net  that  opens  up 
and  down  the  side.  Such  a  net  cannot  be  made  tight 
enough  (except  with  very  great  pains)  to  keep  out 
mosquitoes. 

Really,  a  bobbinet  bar  reaching  the  floor  on  all  sides 
of  the  bed  is  the  only  satisfactory  net.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  allow  mosquitoes  to  enter  the  net  with  the 
sleeper.  The  edge  of  the  net  must  not  catch  on  the 
bed  rail  or  cover  and  remain  off  the  floor  during  the 
night. 

A  net  is  not  only  useful  and  necessary  at  home,  but  it 
is  indispensable  when  traveling.  Hotels,  especially  those 
in  country  towns,  often  have  no  mosquito  bars  on  their 
beds.  Hotels  are  to  be  dreaded  because  the  very  room 
occupied  to-night  may  have  been  occupied  a  few  nights 
previous  by  a  malarious  person.  If  so,  the  malarial 
mosquitoes  present  in  the  room  are  liable  to  be  teeming 
with  the  malarial  germ  and  the  unsuspecting  sleeper  will 


98  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

inevitably  become  infected  by  them  before  morning. 
It  is  advisable,  in  traveling,  to  carry  needle  and  thread  to 
mend  the  rents  in  bed  nets ;  or,  better  still,  to  carry  a 
small  light  net  in  one's  bag  for  use  where  nets  are 
absent  or  where  they  are  too  badly  torn  to  mend. 

I  can  do  no  better  than  to  quote  the  words  of  Ross. 
He  says  "  perhaps  our  first  and  best  defense  against  malaria 
lies  in  the  habitual  and  scrupulous  use  of  mosquito  nets 
at  night.  .  .  .  The  first  care  of  the  resident  in  the  tropics, 
of  the  traveler,  the  sportsman,  the  soldier,  the  miner, 
the  clerk,  should  be  for  his  mosquito  net.  Wherever 
he  lives,  wherever  he  goes,  he  should  see  that  his  mosquito 
net  is  with  him,  that  it  is  in  good  order,  and  that  it  is 
properly  arranged  at  bed  time." 

WIRE  GAUZE  SCREENS  AT  WINDOWS 

From  his  own  experience,  the  author  considers  wire 
gauze  screens  at  doors  and  windows  next  to  bed  nets  in 
the  prevention  of  malaria.  It  is  true  that  the  bite  of 
one  infected  Anopheles  will  not,  as  a  rule,  give  as  severe  a 
case  of  malaria  as  the  bites  of  two  or  more.  Hence,  any 
measure  capable  of  lessening  the  number  of  these  insects 
that  can  gain  access  to  an  individual  lessens  the  chances 
of  contracting  malaria,  and  also  lessens  the  severity  of 
the  disease  if  contracted.  It  is  not  claimed  that  wire 
gauze  can  be  fitted  tightly  enough  to  keep  out  all 
mosquitoes,  but  any  one  who  has  lived  in  a  well-screened 
house  in  mosquito  regions  knows  well  the  difference  be- 
tween the  buzzing  swarms  of  these  pests  found  in  out- 
houses after  dark  and  the  occasional  ones  in  dwelling 
houses. 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES      99 


A  word  should  be  said  regarding  the  kind  of  screens  to 
use.  In  the  first  place,  the  wire  should  be  galvanized 
and  should  have  at  least  fourteen  meshes  to  the  inch, 
and  better  sixteen.  For  protection  against  the  yellow 
fever  mosquito,  eighteen  meshes  to  the  inch  are  necessary. 

The  most  efficient  window  screens  are  those  that  cover 
the  whole  window  (Fig.  33) .  Such  a  screen  is  fitted  inside 


.." 


FIG.  33.  —  Screen  covering 
whole  window. 


FIG.  34.  —  Screen  over  lower 
half  of  window. 


the  casing  on  the  outside  of  the  window  and  is  held  on  by 
buttons,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  screen  can 
be  quickly  removed  in  the  autumn  and  easily  replaced 
in  the  spring.  Of  course,  this  type  of  screen  is  suitable 
only  where  there  are  no  shutters.  The  next  best  type  of 
screen  is  one  covering  the  lower  half  of  the  window  and 
fitted  inside  of  the  casing  (Fig.  34).  This  screen  has  a 


100  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

strip  nailed  along  its  upper  edge  on  the  inside  to  close 
the  opening  between  the  frame  of  the  screen  and  the 
lower  edge  of  the  upper  sash.  It  is  fastened  by  two 
buttons  near  the  top  and  a  hook  on  the  inside  at  the 
bottom  which  catches  in  a  screw  eye  in  the  window  sill. 
This  arrangement  enables  one  to  put  the  screen  on  and 
fasten  it  from  the  inside  of  the  house,  which  is  of  con- 
siderable advantage,  especially  in  the  case  of  windows  in 
the  upper  stories.  With  this  type  of  screen  the  upper  sash 
of  the  window  should  not  be  lowered,  but  the  lower  sash 
can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure. 

In  case  of  those  houses  that  have  shutters  the  screen 
is  sometimes  made  to  fit  the  casing  on  the  inside  of  the 
window.  In  this  case,  the  screen  fits  in  front  of  the  lower 
sash  only.  The  stops  on  the  inside  are  usually  removed 
and  the  screen  put  in  place  of  them.  These  screens  are 
arranged  to  slide  up  and  down  in  order  to  gain  access  to 
the  lower  sash  and  to  close  or  open  the  shutters.  With 
one  of  these  screens  the  lower  sash  should  always  be  raised 
to  its  full  height  when  opened,  else  there  will  be  a  space 
between  it  and  the  wire,  and  also  between  the  two  sashes 
through  which  insects  could  easily  crawl. 

So-called  adjustable  screens  fitted  beneath  the  lower 
sash  are  practically  worthless.  They  never  fit  tightly 
enough  to  exclude  mosquitoes,  and  with  most  of  them 
house-flies  can  easily  enter. 

Every  window  and  outside  door  in  the  house  should  be 
screened.  In  the  Southern  states  the  screens  should 
remain  on  the  year  round.  The  same  precaution  is  also 
necessary  to  exclude  house-flies.  Front  doors  are  often 
screened  while  the  back  door  is  left  unprotected,  thus 
forming  a  fine  place  of  entrance  for  mosquitoes.  Cellar 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  101 

doors  and  windows  should  receive  special  attention 
because  it  is  in  warm  cellars  that  the  adult  mosquitoes  like 
best  of  all  to  pass  the  winter. 

GOING   INDOORS   EARLY  AT   NIGHT 

There  has  heretofore  been  a  prevailing  idea  that  night 
air  caused  malaria.  We  now  know  that  night  air  is  as 
pure  and  health-giving  as  any  air,  and  that  chills  and 
fevers  are  contracted  from  the  bites  of  Anopheles  mosqui- 
toes that  fly  at  night,  and  not  from  any  "miasma"  in  the 
air.  It  is  therefore  just  as  important  that  we  remain 
in  the  house  at  night  as  it  ever  was.  Moreover,  it  is 
important  that  we  either  go  within  doors  early,  before 
dusk,  or  very  carefully  screen  our  porches.  It  should 
be  said,  however,  that  Anopheles  do  bite  in  the  daytime. 
Nevertheless,  they  are  most  numerous  at  night  and  do  most 
of  their  biting  about  dusk.  In  hot  climates,  houses  are 
built  with  as  much  porch  room  as  possible,  and  people  are 
much  in  the  habit  of  sitting  on  these  unprotected 
verandas.  If  malaria  is  to  be  escaped,  such  porches  must 
be  screened. 

COOL  SLEEPING   ROOMS 

In  many  of  the  Southern  states  mosquitoes  breed  and 
remain  active  very  late  in  the  fall.  If  sleeping  rooms  are 
kept  warm,  these  insects  will  remain  active  and  virulent 
for  some  time.  To  avoid  this,  one  should  not  have  fires 
in  the  sleeping  room,  except,  possibly,  for  a  little  while 
in  the  early  morning  at  rising  time.  In  other  words, 
mosquitoes  should  be  made  to  lie  dormant  by  low  tem- 
peratures if  possible. 


102  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

REPELLENTS   FOR   ADULT   MOSQUITOES 

Various  mixtures,  oils,  and  ingredients  are  used  to  repel 
adult  mosquitoes.  Oil  of  citronella  is  said  to  be  a  very 
efficient  protection  against  adult  mosquitoes,  but  it  will 
not  last  long,  at  most,  and  is  not  to  be  relied  on  for  pro- 
tection during  a  night  of  sleep.  It  is  mainly  useful  while 
one  is  sitting  on  porches  or  in  rooms  where  mosquitoes 
are  troublesome. 

Chickens  and  fowls  are  often  pestered  by  mosquitoes 
and  the  author  has  seen  one  instance,  at  least,  where  he 
feels  sure  that  mosquitoes  were  the  cause  of"  sore  heads 
among  a  flock  of  chickens.  It  would  seem  advisable  to 
use  fish  oil  containing  a  little  crude  carbolic  acid  in  such 
cases. 

Miss  Mitchell  gives  the  following  mixture  as  the  best 
for  general  use  by  human  beings ;  cedar  oil,  one  ounce ; 
oil  of  citronella,  two  ounces;  spirits  of  camphor,  two 
ounces.  She  says  "a  few  drops  of  this  on  a  cloth  hung 
on  the  bed  will  keep  mosquitoes  at  a  distance,  and  the 
efficiency  continues  for  a  long  time." 

REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  BY  THE  USE  OF  TREES  AND  PLANTS 

Many  persons  hold  that  where  certain  trees  or  plants 
grow  no  mosquitoes  will  be  found.  Eucalyptus  trees 
and  the  castor-oil  plant  are  thought  to  have  peculiar 
efficacy  in  repelling  mosquitoes.  The  eucalyptus  tree, 
especially,  is  recommended  for  planting  in  mosquito-ridden 
localities.  This  tree  is  widely  grown  in  California  and 
there,  if  anywhere,  it  should  demonstrate  its  use  in  repel- 
ling mosquitoes.  Quayle  who  has  observed  this  tree  in 
California  and  its  relation  to  mosquitoes  says :  "  In  the 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  103 

Burlingame  section  all  of  the  numerous  winding  avenues 
are  lined  with  eucalyptus ;  there  are  eucalyptus  along  the 
highways,  and  there  are  groves  of  eucalyptus ;  yet,  where 
these  trees  are  most  abundant  it  might  be  said  that  the 
mosquitoes  are  most  numerous.  .  .  .  During  the  sum- 
mer of  1904  we  captured  in  five  minutes'  sweeping,  immedi- 
ately under  eucalyptus  trees,  a  pint  cup  of  mosquitoes." 
Coyote  Point,  Cal.,  is  covered  with  these  trees,  yet  the 
construction  of  a  hotel  there  was  abandoned  because  of 
the  mosquitoes.  Other  observers,  who  have  lived  where 
the  eucalyptus  grows  arid  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
actually  observing  its  relation  to  mosquitoes,  declare 
that  it  does  not  repel  these  insects.  All  the  authentic 
evidence  we  have  on  the  subject  proves  that  the  eucalyp- 
tus tree  is  of  no  avail  in  repelling  mosquitoes. 

The  castor-oil  plant  has  also  been  heralded  as  repugnant 
to  mosquitoes.  Howard  says  this  idea  was  based  largely 
upon  the  report  of  Capt.  E.  H.  Plumacher,  United  States 
Consul  at  Maracaibo,  Venezuela.  He  reported  that  his 
house  in  Venezuela,  surrounded  by  plantain  and  banana 
trees,  had  been  greatly  troubled  by  mosquitoes.  But 
following  the  advice  of  neighbors  he  planted  the  seeds  of 
the  castor-oil  plant  among  the  trees,  and  the  mosquitoes 
disappeared  with  the  development  of  the  plants.  Some 
of  these  Venezuelan  seeds  were  planted  in  New  Jersey  by 
Brakeley,  but  the  plants  proved  of  no  efficacy  in  repelling 
the  Jersey  mosquitoes.  J.  B.  Smith,  also  of  New  Jersey, 
says,  "I  put  out  several  groups  of  them  (castor  bean 
plants)  in  1902  in  my  front  lawn  and  next  to  the  porch. 
They  were  faithfully  tested ;  but  under  the  very  plants 
themselves  the  mosquitoes  were  a  little  worse  than  any- 
where else." 


104  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Chinaberry  trees,  which  have  also  a  reported  charm 
against  mosquitoes,  have  been  shown  to  be  worthless  as 
repellents  for  these  insects. 


RULES  FOR  THE    PREVENTION   OF   MOSQUITOES 

The  following  measures  against  mosquitoes  for  the  pre- 
vention of  yellow  fever  published  in  1906  by  the  Public 
Health  and  Marine  Hospital  Service  are  so  authoritative 
and  so  much  to  the  point  that  it  seems  eminently  worth 
while  to  publish  them  here :  — 


HOW  TO  PREVENT  YELLOW  FEVER  —  NO  MOSQUITOES, 
NO  YELLOW  FEVER 

TREASURY  DEPARTMENT, 

Bureau  of 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  AND  MARINE  HOSPITAL  SERVICE, 
Washington,  July  31,  1905. 

Note.  —  The  measures  herein  mentioned  were  recommended  by 
the  Army  medical  board  of  1900,  and  have  been  indorsed  by  the 
American  Public  Health  Association  and  by  the  First  International 
Sanitary  Convention  of  American  Republics.  They  have  also  been 
justified  by  the  experiences  and  observations  of  the  two  working 
parties  of  the  Yellow  Fever  Institute  of  this  Bureau  in  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico,  and  by  the  commission  of  the  Pasteur  Institute  of  Paris. 
France,  operating  in  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil.  The  measures  have  been 
tested  successfully  on  a  large  scale  in  Havana,  Cuba,  and  during  the 
yellow  fever  epidemic  at  Laredo,  Texas,  in  1903  : 

THE  INFECTION  OF  YELLOW  FEVER  IS  CARRIED  BY  MOSQUITOES,  AND 
BY  NO  OTHER  MEANS  IS  THE  INFECTION  SPREAD. 

PERSONS  TAKE  THE  DISEASE  BY  BEING  BITTEN  BY  MOSQUITOES  THAT 
HAVE  PREVIOUSLY  BITTEN  A  YELLOW-FEVER  PATIENT. 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES  105 

THE  MOSQUITOES  TO  BECOME  INFECTED  MUST  BITE  A  YELLOW-FEVEK 
PATIENT  DURING  THE  FIRST  THREE  DAYS  OF  HIS  ATTACK.  THESE 
FIRST  THREE  DAYS,  THEREFORE,  ARE  THE  MOST  LMPORTANT  TIME  FOR 
PREVENTING  THE  ACCESS  OF  MOSQUITOES  TO  A  FEVER  PATIENT. 

IT  IS  OFTEN  DIFFICULT  TO  DECIDE  DURING  THE  FIRST  THREE  DAYS 
WHETHER  A  PATIENT  HAS  YELLOW  FEVER  :  HENCE  THE  NECESSITY 
IN  THREATENED  COMMUNITIES  OF  PLACING  A  MOSQUITO  BAR  IMMEDI- 
ATELY AROUND  EVERY  PATIENT  WHO  HAS  FEVER  OF  ANY  KIND,  AND 
FOR  THREE  DAYS  AT  LEAST. 

FACTS  ABOUT  SCREENING 

1.  The  netting  used  should  have  meshes  fine  enough  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  mosquitoes  (at  least  18-20  meshes  to  the  inch). 

2.  It  is  important  to  screen  the  windows  and  doors  of  the  house. 
It  is  doubly  important  to  screen  the  beds  of  fever  patients. 

3.  Mosquitoes  can  bite  through  mosquito  nets  when  any  part  of 
the  patient's  body  is  in  contact  with  the  netting. 

4.  Frequent  examinations  should  be  made  to  see  that  there  are 
no  torn  places  in  the  netting  or  that  no  mosquitoes  have  found  a 
lodgment  inside. 

5.  The  netting  should  be  well  tucked  in  to  keep  mosquitoes  from 
entering. 

6.  If  mosquitoes  are  found  within  the  netting,  they  should  be 
killed  inside  and  not  merely  driven  or  shaken  out. 

7.  All  cases  of  fever  should  be  promptly  reported  to  the  local 
health  officer.     Awaiting  his  arrival  they  should  be  covered  with  a 
mosquito  bar. 

FACTS   BEARING   ON   MOSQUITO   DESTRUCTION 

1.  Often  mosquitoes  live  in  the  vicinity  in  which  they  breed. 
They  do  not  fly  a  long  distance. 

2.  Mosquitoes  breed  only  in  water  —  usually  in  artificial  collec- 
tions of  fresh  water. 

3.  The  young  mosquito,  or  wriggler,  lives  in  water  at  least  seven 
to  twelve  days. 

4.  Although  the  wrigglers  live  in  water,  they  must  come  fre- 
quently to  the  surface  to  breathe. 


106  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

5.  Coal  oil  on  the  surface  of  the  water  prevents  the  wrigglers  from 
breathing. 

6.  Destroy  the  breeding  places  and  you  will  destroy  the  mos- 
quitoes. 

7.  Empty  the  water  from  all  tubs,  buckets,  cans,  flower  pots, 
vases,  once  every  forty-eight  hours. 

8.  Fill  or  drain  all  pools,  ditches,  unfilled  postholes,  and  the  like. 

9.  Change  regularly  every  day  all  water  needed  in  chicken  coops, 
kennels,  etc. 

10.  Treat  with  coal  oil  all  standing  water  which  cannot  be  screened 
or  drained  (1  ounce  of  oil  will  cover  15  square  feet  of  surface).     The 
oil  does  not  affect  the  water  for  use  if  the  water  is  drawn  from 
below. 

11.  Where  oil  is  applied  to  standing  water  it  must  be  distributed 
evenly  over  the  surface. 

12.  Put  fine  wire  screening  over  cisterns,  wells,  and  tanks  of  water 
in  everyday  use. 

13.  Places  in  which  it  is  undesirable  to  put  oil,  such  as  watering 
troughs  for  stock,  lily  ponds,  etc.,  can  be  kept  free  from  wrigglers 
by  putting  in  goldfish  or  minnows. 

14.  Clean  away  all  weeds,  grass,  and  bushes  about  ditches,  ponds, 
and  other  possible  breeding  places,  since  these  afford  a  hiding  place 
for  the  mosquitoes. 

15.  Clean  up  vacant  lots  and  back  yards  of  all  cans,  tins,  bottles, 
and  rubbish. 

16.  First  do  away  with,  or  treat,  all  places  where  mosquitoes  are 
known  to  breed,  and  then  begin  to  work  on  places  where  they  might 
breed. 

17.  Inspect  and  treat  with  coal  oil,  gutters,  culverts,  ditches, 
manholes,    catching   basins,   etc.,    along   the   roadside.     Manhole 
covers  should  be  screened. 

18.  Houses  should  be  cleared  of  mosquitoes  by  burning  1  pound  of 
insect  powder  or  two  pounds  of  sulfur  to  1000  cubic  feet  of  space. 
The  mosquitoes  will  fall  to  the  floor  and  should  be  collected  and 
burned. 

19.  Success  in  mosquito  destruction  depends  upon  the  cooperation 
of  the  members  of  the  entire  community. 

20.  While  the  infection  of  yellow  fever  is  carried  by  a  single 


DESTROYING  AND  REPELLING  MOSQUITOES     107 

species  of  mosquito  (the  Stegomyia),  to  insure  its  destruction  it  is 
necessary  to  destroy  all  mosquitoes. 

In  places  liable  to  yellow  fever  both  individuals  and  communities 
have  an  effective  method  of  protecting  themselves,  as  indicated  above. 
Use  the  mosquito  bar  at  once  over  all  cases  of  fever  until  the  danger 
from  yellow  fever  has  passed.  Destroy  all  mosquitoes. 

WALTER  WYMAN, 

Surgeon-General. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  COMMON  BEDBUG 
Cimex  lectidarim 

THE  bedbug  is  apparently  as  old  as  man  himself,  and 
records  seem  to  show  that  this  parasite  has  been  man's 
bedfellow  as  long  as  human  beings  have  slept  in  beds. 
Very  likely  the  bedbug  was  a  companion  to  the  cave  man 
long  before  such  comparatively  modern  sleeping  arrange- 
ments as  beds  were  ever  dreamed  of.  At  any  rate,  the 
Romans  knew  it  well  and  gave  it  the  name  Cimex,  while 
Pliny  wrote  regarding  its  medicinal  qualities  and  especially 
recommended  it  for  snake  bites. 

Seven  bedbugs  mingled  with  water  were  a  dose  for  a  man 
while  four  were  sufficient  for  children.  Jame's  Medical 
Dictionary  tells  us  that  the  smell  of  them  will  relieve 
"  hysterical  suffocation."  It  is  said  that  in  certain  portions 
of  this  country,  inhabitants  used  to  give  bedbugs  for  fever 
and  ague.  Perhaps  they  had  this  as  an  excuse  for  allowing 
the  pests  in  their  houses. 

It  has  gone  with  man  wherever  the  latter' s  colonizing 
instincts  have  led  him,  and  it  came  to  America,  very  likely, 
with  the  early  colonists.  Kalm  recorded  this  pest  as 
abundant  among  the  English  colonies  in  1748,  but  says  it 
was  unknown  among  the  Indians. 

NAMES  BY  WHICH  IT  IS  KNOWN 

The  general  name  bedbug  is  given  to  this  insect  all  over 
the  United  States  and  the  name  is  a  most  appropriate  and 
108 


THE   COMMON    BEDBUG 


109 


descriptive  one.  In  the  South,  at  least  in  Mississippi 
and  parts  of  Texas,  it  is  invariably  called  the  "chinch." 
In  New  York  they  are  often  called  "redcoats,"  while  in 
Baltimore  they  are  given  the  aristocratic  and,  at  the  same 
time,  rather  descriptive  name  "mahogany  flat."  An  old 
English  name  for  it  was  "wall  louse." 

DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    BED 


4 

m 


The  bedbug  is  a  member  of  a  v« 
sects  known   as  Hemiptera.     The 
squash  bugs  are  familiar 
members  of   this   group 
and     near    relatives    of 
the  bedbug.     The  stink 
bugs,  squash  bugs,  and 
bedbugs    have     certain 
glands     in     the     body 
that     secrete    an    oily, 
volatile,  and  ill-smelling 
fluid.     No  doubt,  in  the 
stink  bugs,  squash  bugs, 
and    others    this    fluid 
serves    as    a    means    of 
protection  and  oftentinn 
by  their  enemies,  the 
the  bedbug  there  is 
as  a  protective  weap 
from  some  remote  ar 
presence  of  the  be— 

"buggy"  odor.  ,  with  egg-case  (XI);  trap  for  cockroaches; 

The     bedbug     h,  bedbug  (X  8),  below. 


110  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

(Fig.  35).     The  under  lip  has  become  greatly  lengthened 

and  the  edges  rolled  upward  until  they  nearly  meet  on 

top,  thus  forming  almost  a  closed  tube  that  constitutes 

the    so-called   beak.     Inside  this   tube   are    four   long, 

slender,  thread-like  organs   that  move  over  each  other 

'  ''jfif,  alternating  motion  that  enables  them  to 

*ate  the  flesh  and  set  the  blood  free.    The 

a  tube  to  conduct  the   blood   to  the 

THE  bedbug  is  apj, 

records  seem  "to  show  bedbug  is  flat  and  wide  (Plate  II),  a 
bedfellow  as  long  as  h,  wonderfully  well  to  the  places  it  has 
Very  likely  the  bedbug  *  The  cracks  and  crevices  of  bed- 
long  before  such  compart-^  protective  retreats  for  an  insect 
ments  as  beds  were  ever  tMoreover,  the  bedbug  has  no  large 
Romans  knew  it  well  and  gan(j  encumber  its  retreat.  It  is 
Pliny  wrote  regarding  its  mecrs  of  the  bedbug  had  wings  but 
recommended  it  for  snake  bit,  flightless  life  of  so  many  ages 

Seven  bedbugs  mingled  with  become  lost  through  disuse. 
while  four  were  sufficient  for  >f  wingS)  for  they  have  not 
Dictionary  tells  us  that  the  sleft  of  the  wings  are  simpiy 
"  hysterical  suffocation."  It  is  sfcnd  it  is  fortunate  that  they 
of  this  country,  inhabitants  used  with  which  to  flv>  for  then 
and  ague.  Perhaps  they  had  this  control. 
the  pests  in  their  houses. 

It  has  gone  with  man  wherever 
instincts  have  led  him,  and  it  came  trHE  BEDfiUG 
with  the  early  colonists.     Kami  re3eperj  for  good  nouse_ 
abundant  among  the  English  colonies  ^s^.s  on  ^nejr  beds   to 
was  unknown  among  the  Indians.  -jsned  m  ner  house. 


NAMES  BY  WHICH   IT  IS  KNC. 

^t  in  by  the  washer- 

The  general  name  bedbug  is  given  to  th  jen  bedbugs  come 
the  United  States  and  the  name  is  a  most  . 
108 


PLATE   II 


t 


Cockroach,  croton-bug,  with  egg-case  (XI);  trap  for  cockroaches; 
bedbug  (X  8),  below. 


THE    COMMON   BEDBUG  HI 

in  on  the  weekly  laundry  and  has  seen  them  hiding  away 
among  the  crevices  of  the  clothes  basket.  In  several  in- 
stances, the  writer  has  seen  these  insects  on  the  white 
spread  of  a  bed  on  which  the  clean  clothes  have  been 
laid  by  the  laundress.  This  is  a  source  of  infestation 
that  has  to  be  constantly  watched. 

If  the  members  of  a  family  travel  a  great  deal  they  are 
liable  to  bring  the  pest  home  in  their  trunks  and  hand- 
bags. Guests  that  have  been  traveling  and  stopping  at 
various  hotels  often  unwittingly  become  the  source  of 
infestation  by  bringing  the  pest  in  their  baggage. 

In  towns  and  cities,  where  houses  are  built  close  to- 
gether, the  bedbug  will  sometimes  actually  migrate  from 
one  house  to  another  along  walls  and  pipes.  This  is 
especially  liable  to  happen  where  one  house  has  been  vacant 
for  some  time  and  the  parasites  have  been  deprived  of  food. 
Marlatt  says  the  insect  "  will  often  continue  to  come  from 
an  adjoining  house,  sometimes  for  a  period  of  several 
months,  gaming  entrance  daily." 

THE   FOOD    OF  THE   BEDBUG 

Apparently  the  bedbug  naturally  chooses  human  blood 
in  preference  to  all  other  food.  In  fact,  the  author  is 
unable  to  find  conclusive  evidence  that  the  bedbug  will 
accept  any  other  substance  than  blood  as  food.  Some 
writers  maintain,  however,  that  this  insect  can  subsist 
for  a  time  upon  the  juices  it  may  be  able  to  extract  from 
moist  wood  or  from  moist  accumulations  of  dirt  in  cracks 
and  crevices  of  floors  and  walls.  Indeed,  for  that  matter, 
DeGeer  kept  bedbugs  alive  and  active  for  a  year  in  a  tight 
box  without  any  food  at  all.  Other  investigators  have 


112  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

kept  them  alve  in  vials  and  pill  boxes  without  food  for 
many  months.  This  would  indicate  that  they  could  live 
in  unoccupied  houses  for  several  months,  at  least,  even  if 
they  were  unable  to  obtain  blood.  It  is  doubtful  if  bed- 
bugs could  exist  more  than  one  season,  say  an  active 
summer  and  a  dormant  winter,  in  an  uninhabited  house 
where  no  sources  of  blood  were  available  in  all  that 
time. 

It  is  exceedingly  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note 
the  experiments  of  Girault  and  Strauss  on  the  host  rela- 
tions of  the  bedbug  to  mice.  They  found  that  bedbugs, 
under  certain  conditions,  at  least,  would  attack  both 
recently  killed  mice  and  living  mice  and  would  gorge  them- 
selves with  blood  from  these  animals.  It  is  not  too  much, 
in  the  light  of  these  experiments,  to  suppose  that  these 
insects  might  eke  out  an  existence  in  deserted  dwellings 
for  a  considerable  period  of  time  if  mice  were  present  to 
serve  as  occasional  hosts.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  the 
bedbug  will  thrive  upon  domestic  fowls  as  hosts  and  feed 
upon  the  cat,  dog,  rabbit,  and  other  animals. 

HABITS   OF  THE   BEDBUG 

These  hardly  need  discussion  they  are  so  well  known. 
Of  course  they  frequent  beds  particularly,  but  are  found, 
when  abundant,  in  cracks  of  the  floor,  behind  baseboards, 
window  casings,  and  even  in  cracks  of  the  ceiling. 
Wooden  bedsteads,  especially  the  large  old-fashioned  ones, 
are  most  apt  to  be  infested.  Iron  beds  do  not  afford 
many  hiding  places  for  them  and  are  not  universally 
infested.  We  have,  however,  seen  them  in  iron  bedsteads 
and  in  one  case  found  a  colony  of  30  or  40  bugs  living  and 


THE   COMMON    BEDBUG  113 

increasing  in  the  folds  of  a  bed  net  along  the  seam  up  and 
down  the  back.  Every  now  and  then  a  bedbug  was  seen 
on  the  net  and  killed  and  then  down  came  the  bed  for  a 
treatment.  Probably  the  bed  had  been  treated  half  a 
dozen  times  when  at  last,  in  sheer  desperation,  the  ento- 
mologist was  called  in.  We  were  greatly  puzzled  at  first 
because  the  bedstead  was  apparently  free  from  the  pests ; 
but  when  told  that  the  bugs  were  always  seen  on  the  out- 
side of  the  net  the  search  was  begun  there  with  the  happy 
result  just  given  above. 

These  insects  procure  their  food  at  night,  attacking  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  body.  During  the  day  they  remain 
hidden  in  the  bedstead  and  in  the  mattress  and  about  the 
room.  Somewhat  colored  reports  have  been  written  re- 
garding the  sagacity  and  cunning  of  this  insect  to  gain 
access  to  beds  and  remain  hidden  during  the  day. 

THE   BITE   OF  THE   BEDBUG 

To  many  persons  it  is  very  irritating  and  causes  swelling 
and  produces  large  red  blotches  on  the  skin.  The  writer 
remembers  vividly  his  first  and  youthful  experience  with 
bedbugs  in  a  city  boarding  house  while  attending  school. 
In  this  instance  they  paid  especial  attention  to  his  neck 
which  was  one  mass  of  red  blotches  before  he  knew  the 
cause  of  his  restless  and  uneasy  slumbers.  Many  people 
are  not  sensitive  to  the  bite  of  this  insect  and  seem  never 
to  be  aware  of  its  existence,  even  when  present.  So  far 
as  known,  there  is  no  poison  secreted  in  the  mouth  of  the 
bedbug  and  the  inflammation  seems  to  be  due  simply  to 
the  irritation  caused  by  the  puncture. 


114  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


LIFE   HISTORY 

There  are  still  several  things  to  learn  regarding  points 
in  the  life  history  of  so  common  and  so  widely  distributed 
an  insect  as  the  bedbug. 

C.  L.  Marlatt  in  1896  was  the  first  to  give  the  true  life 
history  of  the  bedbug.  Later,  in  1905,  A.  A.  Girault 
contributed  considerable  data  to  the  life  history  of  this 
insect.  We  are  yet  in  the  dark  concerning  the  number  of 
eggs  desposited  by  a  single  female  and  we  do  not  know 
positively  how  many  generations  there  may  be  in  a  year. 

The  eggs  are  white  and  oval  in  outline  with  a  rim  around 
the  free  end  and  sculpturing  over  the  shell.  They  are 
laid  in  batches  of  varying  numbers  in  cracks  and  crevices 
in  the  bedsteads  or  other  places  in  which  the  bedbugs 
happen  to  be.  The  number  of  eggs  deposited  by  a  single 
female  is  not  known.  Southall,  Riley,  and  others  have 
made  the  common  statement,  probably  not  based  on  actual 
observation,  that  each  female  lays  about  four  batches  of 
fifty  each  during  the  season.  Girault  actually  succeeded 
in  obtaining  111  eggs  from  one  well-fed  female  between 
June  17  and  August  19.  How  many  she  had  deposited 
previous  to  confinement  for  the  experiment  he  was,  of 
course,  unable  to  say.  Girault's  experience  with  this  one 
bug  indicates  that  the  females  may  continue  to  lay  eggs 
at  different  periods  throughout  the  breeding  season  and 
that  there  is  only  one  generation  a  year. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  six  to  ten  days  and  the  young  bugs 
or  nymphs  molt  five  times  before  they  become  adults. 
When  first  hatched  the  nymphs  are  whitish  in  color,  but 
as  soon  as  possible  they  feed,  when  the  body  becomes  red 
or  dark  purplish,  due  to  the  engorgement  of  blood.  As 


THE    COMMON   BEDBUG  115 

the  nymphs  molt  and  grow  they  become  darker  and  darker 
in  color.  Marlatt  pointed  out  that  the  periods  between 
the  molts  vary  greatly  with  the  amount  of  blood  the 
nymphs  obtain.  Girault  showed  that  well-fed  nymphs 
passed  through  their  molts  and  became  adults  in  35  to  48 
days,  while  those  poorly  fed  took  from  78  to  156  days  for 
their  development. 

Marlatt  says  that  under  the  most  favorable  conditions 
an  average  period  of  about  eight  days  occurs  between 
moltings  and  between  the  laying  of  the  eggs  and  their 
hatching,  thus  giving  about  seven  weeks  as  the  period 
from  egg  to  adult  insect.  It  would  seem  that  ordinarily 
a  bug  feeds  but  once  between  each  molt.  In  this  event, 
each  one  punctures  its  host  at  least  five  times  before  be- 
coming an  adult.  The  adult  female  probably  punctures 
its  host  several  times  before  the  egg-laying  period  is 
finished. 

DOES  THE   BEDBUG   INFEST    ANIMALS    OTHER  THAN    MAN? 

Many  persons  feel  very  sure  that  the  bedbug  is  found  on 
swallows  and  that  houses  may  become  infested  with  these 
pests  from  the  nests  of  swallows  and  swifts.  It  is  true  that 
swallows  and  chimney  swifts  are  infested  with  a  bug 
very  similar  in  appearance  to  a  bedbug,  but  it  is  a  species 
distinct  from  the  latter.  Occasionally,  these  swallow 
bugs  get  into  dwellings  and  cause  a  great  deal  of  worry  to 
housekeepers.  In  one  case,  a  correspondent  writes  that 
the  bugs  from  swifts  that  had  taken  up  their  abode  in  the 
chimney  of  the  house  invaded  a  sleeping  room  in  great 
numbers  and  severely  attacked  the  occupant  of  the  bed. 
In  a  careful  search  next  day,  however,  none  of  the  bugs 


116 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


could  be  found  in  the  bed  although  they  were  abundant 
about  the  floors  of  the  room.  This  is  a  very  interesting 
note  and  if  the  observations  and  conclusions  of  the  cor- 
respondent were  correct,  there  is  some  ground  for  worry  in 
connection  with  these  bird  "bedbugs." 

A  bug  very  similar  to 
the  bedbug  is  also  found 
in  pigeon  cotes  and  an- 
other in  the  nests  of  the 
English  martin. 

The  true  bedbug  does, 
however,  occur  in  poultry 
houses.  It  has  been  found 
that  bedbugs  breed  in  the 
houses  and  attack  the 
chickens  at  night,  causing 
considerable  injury. 

In  certain  parts  of  the 
West,  the  older  inhabit- 
ants, at  least,  believe  that 
the  bedbug  lives  on  dead 
or  dying  cottonwood  trees 
beneath  the  bark  and  that 
they  will  surely  be  found 
in  houses  built  of  cotton- 
wood  logs.  The  early  immature  stages  of  another  bug 
belonging  to  the  genus  Aradus  (Fig.  36)  are  often  found 
under  the  bark  of  cottonwood  trees.  In  these  immature 
stages  this  insect  has  no  developed  wings  and  greatly 
resembles  a  bedbug  and  is,  therefore,  mistaken  for  the 
latter.  In  this  way,  probably,  the  misconception  has 
arisen  that  bedbugs  live  out-of-doors  on  trees. 


FIG.  36.  —  Nymph  of  a  species  of 
Aradus,  much  enlarged. 


THE   COMMON   BEDBUG  117 


THE   RELATION  OF  THE   BEDBUG  TO  DISEASE 

Metschnikoff  was  probably  the  first  to  bring  the  bedbug 
under  suspicion  as  a  transmitter  of  disease.  Since  that 
time  many  writers  and  experimenters  have  labored  hard 
to  prove  this  insect  guilty  of  graver  offenses  than  that  of 
simply  stealing  blood  from  human  hosts.  The  most  they 
have  been  able  to  do  so  far,  however,  is  to  show  that  in 
one  case,  at  least,  the  bite  of  the  bedbug  formed  a  starting 
point  for  a  case  of  bubonic  plague.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  is  really  a  stronger  indictment  against  the  bedbug 
than,  at  first  thought,  might  appear.  The  sores  resulting 
from  bedbug  bites  offer  ideal  points  of  entrance  for  disease- 
producing  organisms  and  are  a  source  of  real  danger. 
Actual  and  definite  proofs  of  the  transmission  of  disease  by 
the  bedbug  are  difficult  to  obtain,  but  suspicion  points 
strongly  in  that  direction.  It  is  supposed  that  they  spread 
the  germ  causing  Obermeyer's  relapsing  fever,  a  disease 
occurring  in  Europe.  Nuttall  succeeded  in  transmitting 
this  germ  through  the  bite  of  a  bedbug  from  one  mouse  to 
another.  It  is  inferred  that  if  the  bedbug  can  transmit 
the  germ  from  mouse  to  mouse,  it  can  also  transmit  it  from 
man  to  man. 

Dutton  has  also  shown,  experimentally,  that  the  bedbug 
may  spread  typhoid  fever.  The  bugs  were  infected  by 
feeding  on  the  blood  of  a  person  in  the  acute  stage  of  the 
fever.  The  bacilli  were  retained  by  the  bug  in  a  virulent 
condition  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours. 

In  1907  Patton  discovered  the  parasites  of  a  tropical 
disease  of  the  Old  World,  known  as  Kala-azar,  in  bedbugs 
(Cimex  rotundatus)  that  had  fed  on  persons  suffering 
from  this  disease.  He  did  not  demonstrate,  however, 


118  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

that    the    bedbug    actually    inoculated    other    people 
with  it. 

It  is  extremely  desirable  to  avoid  the  bites  of  this  insect 
if  possible,  especially  in  hotels  where  beds  are  occupied 
by  so  many  different  people ;  but  this  is  very  hard  to  do, 
in  fact,  almost  impossible  if  one  travels  much. 

CONTROL   OF  THE   BEDBUG 

In  the  first  place,  iron  or  brass  bedsteads  are  much  more 
desirable  than  wooden  beds  in  a  fight  against  this  pest. 
The  former  offer  very  few  cracks  and  crevices  and  what 
there  are  may  be  easily  reached. 

There  are  several  old-fashioned  remedies  for  the  bedbug 
that  are  efficient  weapons  in  the  hands  of  a  persistent  and 
thorough  housekeeper.  Kerosene  oil,  gasoline,  or  benzine 
will  kill  bedbugs  if  forced  into  cracks  and  crevices  with  a 
feather  or  with  a  hand  syringe.  The  treatment  must  be 
thorough  and  should  be  made  several  times  in  succes- 
sion, allowing  intervals  of  three  or  four  days  between 
applications  to  give  time  for  any  untouched  eggs  to 
hatch. 

A  mixture  of  corrosive  sublimate  one  ounce,  alcohol 
one  pint,  and  spirits  of  turpentine  one-fourth  pint,  painted 
in  the  cracks  of  a  bedstead  with  a  feather,  is  an  old  fash- 
ioned remedy  and  an  effective  one.  Since  bedbugs  are 
sucking  insects  and  are  killed  by  contact,  it  is  hard  to  see 
how  the  corrosive  sublimate  adds  anything  to  the  effective- 
ness of  the  remedy.  If  these  pests  were  biting  and  chew- 
ing insects  and  there  was  thus  some  probability  of  their 
eating  some  of  the  poison,  there  might  be  more  reason  for 
including  it.  It  is  possible  that,  as  its  name  indicates, 


THE   COMMON   BEDBUG  119 

the  mercuric  chloride  has  more  or  less  corrosive  effect 
when  it  comes  in  actual  contact  with  the  insect. 

Boiling  water  poured  over  the  parts  of  a  bedstead  that 
have  been  carried  where  they  may  be  liberally  treated 
will  kill  both  eggs  and  bugs.  Of  course,  boiling  water 
should  -not  be  used  on  highly  polished  and  varnished 
furniture. 

Sulfur  has  been  used  with  success  by  some.  Person- 
ally, the  author  has  not  found  the  burning  of  sulfur 
effective,  but  it  seems  now  that  not  enough  was  used. 
Not  less  than  two  pounds  to  every  thousand  cubic  feet 
of  space  should  be  burned  and  the  room  should  be 
tightly  closed  for  several  hours.  The  most  effective 
and,  at  the  same  time,  most  economical  method  of  clos- 
ing the  cracks  about  windows,  transoms,  and  doors,  is  to 
tear  old  newspapers  into  narrow  strips  and  soak  these 
thoroughly  in  water.  When  thoroughly  soaked,  these 
strips  may  be  quickly  applied  over  the  cracks  and  will 
stick  there  closely  for  several  hours.  Fireplaces,  chimney 
holes  and  other  large  openings  should  be  closed  with  old 
quilts,  sacks,  or  anything  convenient. 

The  sulfur  may  be  burned  by  putting  it  in  an  old 
kettle,  baking  pan,  or  similar  dish  that  is  not  held  together 
with  solder,  and  setting  it  on  brick  or  in  a  pan  of  cold 
ashes  to  keep  it  from  burning  the  floor.  A  teacupful  of 
wood  alcohol  poured  directly  into  two  pounds  of  sulfur 
and  then  lighted  will  serve  to  burn  the  sulfur  completely 
and  readily.  The  sulfur  may  be  burned  on  live  coals 
in  an  ash-pan. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  sulfur  fumes  bleach 
certain  colors  in  wallpapers  and  fabrics  and  tarnish  metals 
of  various  sorts.  For  these  reasons,  its  use  is  objectionable. 


120  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Sulfur  candles  for  fumigating  are  now  made  and  are 
very  convenient.  They  may  be  burned  by  setting  them 
on  bricks  in  a  tub  of  water  or  in  pans  of  wood  or  coal  ashes. 

Where  swifts  have  taken  possession  of  a  chimney  and 
bugs  from  them  have  overrun  adjacent  rooms  it  would  be 
advisable  to  exclude  the  birds  from  their  roosting  place. 
This  could  be  done  by  securely  fastening  heavy  wire  net- 
ting over  the  chimney  opening.  It  would  also  probably  be 
feasible  to  fumigate  the  chimney  by  burning  sulfur  in  it 
after  closing  the  top  opening  tightly. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  —  This  is  the  killing  agent,  par 
excellence,  for  bedbugs  and  household  insects.  It  is  a 
gas  formed  by  the  chemical  reaction  between  potassium 
cyanide,  water,  and  sulfuric  acid,  and  is  a  deadly  poison 
to  human  beings  as  well  as  to  other  animals.  However, 
it  can  be  generated  and  used  in  the  fumigation  of  houses, 
without  the  least  danger,  if  care  and  precaution  are 
used  in  the  work.  The  gas  is  not  inflammable,  does 
not  bleach  colors,  does  not  injure  fabrics  in  any  way,  and 
does  not,  in  general,  attack  metals,  although  it  will  tarnish 
nickel  fixtures.  These  should  be  covered  with  towels  or 
similar  articles.  Dry  food  products  are  not  affected,  but 
milk  and  butter  may  absorb  some  of  the  gas  and  should 
be  covered.  See  Chapter  XVII  for  a  discussion  of  the 
use  of  this  gas. 

Desiring  to  know  the  effect  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  on 
bugs  hidden  away  in  mattresses,  blankets,  comfortables, 
and  the  like,  the  following  experiments  were  tried :  — 

1.  Three  bugs  were  placed  in  a  perforated  pill  box  and 
then  wrapped  in  excelsior,  three  inches  all  around,  and  this 
in  turn  in  some  domestic  to  imitate  ticking. 

2.  Three  bugs  (one  adult,  one  one-third  grown,  and  one 


THE    COMMON    BEDBUG  121 

very  young)  were  placed  in  a  similar  box  and  then  carefully 
wrapped  in  two  folds  of  a  thick  comfortable. 

3.  Three  bugs  (two  adults  and  one  one-third  grown) 
were  placed  in  a  similar  box  and  carefully  wrapped  in 
cotton-batting  to  the  depth  of  two  inches. 

4.  Two  bugs  (one  adult  and  one  two-thirds  grown) 
were  placed  in  a  similar  box  and  wrapped  in  two  folds  of  a 
thick  woolen  blanket. 

5.  Six  bugs  were  put  in  a  vial  3^  inches  deep  and  one 
inch  in  diameter,  and  the  latter  stopped  with  an  inch  cork 
which  had  been  punched  twice  with  a  pair  of  dissecting- 
forceps  with  curved  points.     The  holes  thus  made  had 
apparently  closed  up,  owing  to  the  spongy  nature  of  the 
cork,  but    it  was  found    afterwards   that  air  could  be 
readily  forced  through  them  by  placing  the    cork   be- 
tween one's  lips. 

6.  To  serve  as  checks  several  bugs  in  perforated  boxes 
were  placed  about  the  room  at  different  heights  from  the 
floor. 

In  every  box  of  bugs  wrapped  in  different  materials 
several  new-laid  eggs  were  placed  to  determine  the  effect 
of  the  gas  upon  the  hatching  of  the  same. 

The  room  in  which  the  fumigation  was  done  measured 
14  X  8  X  8,  and  contained  896  cubic  feet.  We  used  10 
ounces  of  cyanide,  300  cc.  of  acid  and  600  cc.  of  water, 
allowing  the  room  to  remain  closed  14  hours.  We  made 
a  slight  mistake  in  our  computation,  and  used  1  ounce 
more  of  cyanide  than  our  formula  called  for. 

The  result  was  surprising  and  very  gratifying.  Every 
bedbug  in  every  case  was  killed. 

The  fumigation  was  done  June  1st,  and  up  to  June 
12th,  none  of  the  eggs  showed  any  signs  of  hatching. 


122  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  they  were  fertile  or  not, 
but  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  were.  We 
obtained  them  by  confining  a  dozen  or  more  adult  bugs  in 
a  large  vial,  and  on  the  second  day  we  found  eggs  in  abun- 
dance. The  eggs  must  have  been  formed  in  the  females 
under  natural  conditions  in  the  bedsteads  from  which  they 
were  taken,  and  very  likely  the  bugs  were  fertilized  there 
before  we  collected  the  females. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  BEDBUG 

1773.  DEGEER,  CARL.  —  Punaise  des  lits.  Memoires  pour  servir  a 
1'histoire  des  insectes,  Stockholm,  III,  pp.  296-305,  pi.  17, 
figs.  9-15. 

1889.    RILEY,  C.  V.  —  The  bedbug.    Insect  Life,  Vol.  II,  p.  104. 

1894.  PERKINS,  G.  H.  —  Household  pests.     Eighth  Annual  Report 
of  the  Vt.  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  128. 

1895.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual  for  the  study  of  insects,  p.  140. 

1896.  BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Household  insects,  pp.  273-303. 

1896.    MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  Bedbugs,  Bull.  4,  n.  s.,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  32-38. 
1896.     LUGGER,  OTTO.— The   bedbug.      Bull.  48,  Minn.  Expt. 

Stat.,  p.  222. 
1896.     OSBORN,  HERBERT.  —  The  common  bedbug.     Bull.  5,  n.  s., 

Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  157. 
1901.     HOWARD,   L.   O.  —  Life    history   of   the    bedbug.     Insect 

Book,  p.  289. 
1905.     GIRAULT,  A.  A. —  The  bedbug,   life  history,   habits,  etc. 

Psyche,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  61-74. 

1905.  GIRAULT  and  STRAUSS.  —  The  bedbug,  Clinocoris  lectularius, 
(Linnaeus),  and  the  fowl  bug,  Clinocoris  columbarius  (Jenyns) : 
host  relations.     Psyche,  Vol.  XII,  p.  117. 

1906.  GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  The  bedbug,  literature,  pathogenic  rela- 
tions, etc.     Psyche,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  42-48. 

1905.  KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  American  insects,  p.  205. 

1906.  LOCHHEAD,  WILLIAM.  —  Household  insects.     Canad.  Ent., 
Vol.  38,  p.  66. 


THE   COMMON    BEDBUG  123 

1907.    MARLATT,    C.    L.  —  Bedbugs.     Ore.   47,   Bu.    Ent.,  U.S. 

Dept.  Agri. 
1907.     HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas 

for  bedbugs.     Canad.  Ent.,  Vol.  39,  p.  341. 

1909.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Control  of  household  insects.    N.  Y.  State 
Mus.  Bull.  129. 

1910.  GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  I.    The  effect  of  quantitatively  controlled 
food-supply  on  development  of  the  bedbugs.     Jr.  of  EC.  Biol., 
Vol.  V,  pp.  88-91. 

1912.     -II.     Facts   concerning  the   duration  of  the  different 

stages  of  the  bedbug.     Jr.  EC.  Biol.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.   163-188. 
For  a  much  more  extended  bibliography  on  the  bedbug  and  its 
pathogenic  relations,  see  the  article  by  A.  A.  Girault,  The  bedbug, 
Cimex  kdulariw  (Linn.),  Psyche,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  42,  1906. 


^ 


CHAPTER  VI 

COCKROACHES 
Ectobia  germanica  et   al. 

COCKROACHES  are  exceedingly  annoying  from  the  mere 
fact  of  their  presence  and  their  disgusting  proneness  to  get 
into  things.  Often  they  become  of  considerable  economic 
importance  because  of  their  destructiveness.  Several 
instances  are  recorded  where  they  have  defaced  the  bind- 
ings of  books  in  libraries.  The  paste  with  which  the 
bindings  of  books  are  put  on  is  very  attractive  to  these 
insects  and  in  getting  at  the  paste,  the  cloth  and  leather 
bindings  are  often  scraped  and  defaced.  In  fact, 
cockroaches  are  almost  omnivorous,  eating  cereals, 
bread,  biscuits,  and  almost  any  dead  animal  matter. 
They  occasionally  injure  leather  covered  furniture  and 
are  said  to  eat  their  own  cast  skins,  and  even  living 
members  of  their  own  species,  thus  becoming  can- 
nibalistic. 

It  is  really  in  large  hotels  and  restaurants,  about  baker- 
ies and  on  board  ships  that  the  cockroach  becomes  a 
serious  and  disgusting  pest.  Persons  in  private  homes 
have  no  adequate  notion  of  the  cockroach  as  a  pest. 
There  are  reliable  accounts  of  these  insects  occurring  in 
such  numbers  on  board  vessels  that  the  whole  supply  of 
ship  biscuits  was  either  devoured  or  put  in  such  a  filthy 
condition  that  they  could  not  be  used  as  food. 
124 


COCKROACHES  125 

R.  H.  Lewis,  in  writing  of  a  voyage  taken  by  him 
in  1835,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  damages  in- 
flicted by  cockroaches  on  board  his  ship  in  the  following 
words:  "The  ravages  they  committed  on  everything 
edible  was  very  extensive ;  not  a  biscuit  but  was  more  or 
less  polluted  by  them,  and  among  the  cargo  300  cases  of 
cheeses,  which  had  holes  in  them  to  prevent  their  sweating, 
were  considerably  damaged,  some  of  them  being  half 
devoured,  and  not  one  without  some  marks  of  their  resi- 
dence." 

Another  traveler,  Sells,  gives  a  graphic  account  of 
the  work  of  these  insects  as  he  saw  them  in  Jamaica. 
"  This  is  the  most  annoying  of  the  insect  tribes  in  Jamaica, 
devouring  leathern  articles  of  all  kinds  which  have  been 
used,  such  as  saddles,  harness,  gloves,  boots,  shoes,  etc. ; 
they  devour  the  bindings  of  books  after  they  have  been 
handled,  and  any  perspiration  has  adhered  to  them ;  they 
crawl  over  and  eat  fruit  and  vegetables,  dropping  their 
egg-cases  and  leaving  their  feces  and  an  intolerable 
stench  wherever  they  travel ;  they  also  eat  the  corks  of 
bottled  wine,  cider,  and  porter,  causing  the  liquid  to  escape. 
This  may,  however,  be  prevented  by  dipping  the  corks  in 
a  thick  mixture  of  quicklime  and  water,  the  latter  being 
occasionally  impregnated  with  the  bitter  quassia.  They 
harbor  in  empty  bottles  which  are  rendered  not  only 
difficult  to  clean,  but  almost  impossible  to  sweeten  again. 
They  also  eagerly  devour  parchment,  which  material  is 
consequently  never  used  for  wills,  deeds,  conveyances,  or 
other  legal  documents,  which  the  insects  would  very  quickly 
destroy.  They  have  a  great  dislike  to  castor  oil,  which 
is  accordingly  rubbed  over  boots,  shoes,  and  other  leathern 
articles  to  protect  them  from  their  attack."  Like  the 


126  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

bedbug,  cockroaches  have  a  peculiar  and  disgusting  odor 
wherever  they  have  runways.  This  is  familiarly  known 
as  the  "roachy"  odor.  Dishes  left  standing  on  a  shelf 
for  some  time  where  roaches  are  abundant  are  apt  to 
become  so  impregnated  with  this  odor  that  food  after- 
wards cooked  or  served  in  them  tastes  unpleasant. 

Cockroaches  are  among  the  oldest  insects,  geologically 
speaking,  that  we  have.  They  existed  in  great  numbers 
during  the  coal  forming  age  when  the  prevailing  tempera- 
ture was  warm  and  the  atmosphere  full  of  moisture. 
Under  these  conditions  the  cockroaches  developed  in 
numbers  and  species  until,  entomologically  speaking,  this 
period  might  be  called  the  age  of  cockroaches.  It  will 
shed  some  light  upon  the  habits  of  our  present-day  roaches 
if  we  remember  the  moist,  warm  environments  under 
which  their  ancestors  appeared  and  lived. 

Most  of  our  domestic  cockroaches  came  originally  from 
tropical  regions,  very  likely  from  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia.  They  were  carried  to  England  and  Holland  during 
the  sixteenth  century  in  the  ships  that  brought  teas, 
spices,  and  perfumes  from  the  East.  For  many  years  they 
were  found  only  in  seaport  cities,  but  gradually  spread 
among  the  inland  towns.  Probably,  because  of  their 
tropical  origin,  these  insects  are  not  able  to  stand  low  de- 
grees of  temperature.  Hubbard  tells  us  that  the  cock- 
roaches, even  in  dwellings,  were  nearly  all  destroyed  in 
Florida  during  the  severe  freeze  of  1894  when  so  many 
orange  trees  were  killed.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  one 
species  of  cockroach  that  inhabits  the  huts  of  the  Lap- 
landers and  occurs  in  such  numbers  at  times  that  the  stores 
of  dried  fish  put  away  for  the  winter  are  greatly  damaged 
and  sometimes  destroyed. 


COCKROACHES  127 


HABITS 

Like  the  bedbug,  the  cockroach  generally  remains  hidden 
during  the  daytime  while  the  occupants  of  the  buildings 
are  actively  about.  When  the  kitchen  and  pantry  are 
deserted  and  dark,  these  insects  come  forth  to  forage. 
If  one  comes  into  the  kitchen  suddenly  and  turns  on  the 
light,  the  roaches  will  be  seen  scampering  away  in  every 
direction.  So  abundant  do  they  sometimes  become  that 
they  actually  may  be  heard  rustling  over  the  floors  as 
they  scurry  away.  They  prefer  warm  kitchens,  baker- 
ies, and  pantries,  where  there  are  usually  water  pipes, 
warmth,  and  food.  The  croton-bug  seems  to  come  with 
the  advent  of  waterworks.  Many  inhabitants  of  Southern 
towns  never  saw  a  croton-bug  until  within  the  last  few 
years,  during  which  so  many  of  the  progressive  towns  have 
installed  systems  of  water  supplies.  Dozens  of  inquiries 
have  come  to  us  regarding  the  little  roach  which  had 
never  been  seen  until  the  bathroom  fixtures  had  been 
installed  and  the  kitchen  fitted  with  water  pipes. 

The  flat,  thin  bodies  of  roaches  fit  them  admirably  for 
crawling  into  cracks,  behind  baseboards,  window  casings, 
shelves,  and  other  obstructions.  It  is  in  such  places  that 
they  hide  away  during  the  day.  Moreover,  the  protection 
afforded  by  these  retreats  is  very  effective,  for  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  inject  anything  into  these  cracks  and 
crannies  with  sufficient  force  or  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
actually  hit  and  kill  the  roaches.  The  dark,  sometimes 
almost  black,  color  of  roaches  affords  them  protection  on 
their  nocturnal  foraging  expeditions.  There  are  certain 
redeeming  traits  in  the  habits  of  cockroaches  that  atone 
a  little  for  their  offenses.  They  have  biting  mouth  parts, 


128  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

and  are  primarily  scavengers  and  may  under  certain  con- 
ditions devour  and  thus  remove  certain  offensive  dead 
animal  or  vegetable  matter. 

They  are  also  quite  an  enemy  of  bedbugs  and  will  con- 
tribute towards  the  destruction  of  this  annoying  pest. 
However,  the  small  benefit  roaches  may  confer  in  both 
these  directions  will  hardly  compensate  for  their  presence 
in  dwellings. 

Insect  Life  records  a  very  interesting  letter  from 
Herbert  Smith,  who  has  traveled  widely  in  the  tropics, 
regarding  the  habits  and  numbers  of  cockroaches  in 
Brazil.  He  says :  — 

"Cockroaches  are  so  common  in  Brazilian  country 
houses  that  nobody  pays  any  attention  to  them.  They 
have  an  unpleasant  way  of  getting  into  provision  boxes, 
and  they  deface  books,  shoes,  and  sometimes  clothing. 
Where  wall  paper  is  used  they  soon  eat  it  off  in  unsightly 
patches,  no  doubt  seeking  the  paste  beneath.  But  at 
Corumba,  on  the  upper  Paraguay,  I  came  across  the  cock- 
roach in  a  new  role.  In  the  house  where  we  were  staying 
there  were  nearly  a  dozen  children,  and  every  one  of  them 
had  their  eyelashes  more  or  less  eaten  off  by  cockroaches, 
—  a  large  brown  species,  one  of  the  commonest  kind 
throughout  Brazil.  The  eyelashes  were  bitten  off  irreg- 
ularly, in  some  places  quite  close  to  the  lid.  Like  most 
Brazilians,  these  children  had  very  long,  black  eyelashes, 
and  their  appearance  thus  defaced  was  odd  enough. 
The  trouble  was  confined  to  children,  I  suppose  because 
they  are  heavy  sleepers  and  do  not  disturb  the  insects  at 
work.  My  wife  and  I  sometimes  brushed  cockroaches 
from  our  faces  at  night,  but  thought  nothing  more  of  the 
matter.  The  roaches  also  bite  off  bits  of  the  toenails. 


COCKROACHES  129 

Brazilians  very  properly  encourage  the  large  house  spiders, 
because  they  tend  to  rid  the  house  of  other  insect  pests." 

METHODS   OF   DISSEMINATION 

The  foreign  species  of  roaches,  the  German  roach, 
Australian  roach,  and  Oriental  roach  were  brought  here 
on  ships  from  the  various  countries  in  which  these  insects 
were  native. 

The  German  roach,  now  so  well  known  by  the  name  of 
croton-bug,  is  gradually  spreading  all  over  this  country. 
It  is  called  croton-bug  because  it  was  first  associated  with 
the  water  system  of  New  York  City  supplied  through  the 
great  Croton  aqueduct.  Very  likely  this  cockroach  had 
been  in  this  country  long  before,  but  the  water  pipes  gave 
opportunity  for  entrance  to  the  houses  and  the  accom- 
panying dampness  was  much  liked  by  the  insects.  It  is  a 
fact  that  these  insects  become  numerous  and  greatly 
troublesome  in  dwellings  as  soon  as  a  system  of  water- 
works is  installed.  It  is  evident  that  these  roaches  demand 
a  certain  measure  of  dampness  for  their  successful  increase 
and  continued  existence.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
they  are  brought  to  a  town  with  the  iron  pipes ;  but  the 
dampness  attracts  them  and  affords  favorable  conditions 
for  their  increase. 

Roaches  are  often  carried  from  town  to  town  in  ship- 
ments of  grain,  groceries,  and  other  foods.  The  author 
once  saw  two  cockroaches  in  a  tight  box  containing 
groceries  that  had  been  shipped  from  Chicago  to  Missis- 
sippi. Undoubtedly  roaches  are  carried  from  one  house 
to  another  with  furniture  and  supplies. 

We  have,  at  least,  one  recorded  instance  of  the  un- 


130  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

doubted  migration  of  cockroaches  from  one  building  to 
another.  Howard  records  this  migration  in  the  city  of 
Washington  on  a  dark,  drizzly  day  in  September  as  follows  : 

"The  army  issued  from  the  rear  of  an  old  restaurant 
fronting  upon  Pennsylvania  Avenue  and  marched  across 
the  muddy  street,  undeterred  by  pools  of  water,  ash  heaps 
and  other  barriers,  directly  south  to  the  front  of  the 
building  opposite. 

"  This  building  was  a  machine  shop  and  at  the  direction 
of  the  foreman  several  of  the  men  took  brooms  and  swept 
back  the  advancing  horde.  They  swept  until  their  arms 
were  tired,  but  were  unable  to  stem  the  advancing  tide. 
The  foreman  then  directed  that  a  line  of  hot  ashes  from 
the  furnace  be  laid  along  the  brick  sidewalk.  This  proved 
an  effective  barricade.  The  foremost  cockroaches  burned 
their  antennae  and  their  front  legs  and  the  army  divided 
to  either  side  and  scurried  down  into  the  area  ways  of 
adjoining  buildings  in  which  they  disappeared.  The 
march  is  said  to  have  continued  from  two  to  three  hours 
and  many  thousands  of  the  insects  crossed  in  this  way. 
A  moment's  glance,  after  arriving  at  the  spot,  showed  me 
that  the  insect  was  the  croton  bug  and  that  nearly  all  of 
the  individuals  were  females  carrying  egg-cases. 

"I  called  at  the  restaurant  and  found  to  my  surprise 
that  no  house  cleaning  had  been  going  on  and  that  no 
special  effort  had  been  made  by  the  application  of  insec- 
ticides to  rid  the  establishment  of  the  roaches. 

"  It  seems  then  to  have  been  a  true  migration,  a  develop- 
ment of  the  true  migrating  habit  in  the  croton-bug." 

Perhaps  it  is  in  this  way,  under  cover  of  darkness,  prob- 
ably, that  dwellings  become  suddenly  infested  with  these 
insects. 


COCKROACHES  131 


NUMBERS   AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF   COCKROACHES 

The  cockroaches  belong  to  the  family  Blattidse,  which  is 
rather  closely  related  to  the  family  of  grasshoppers,  or 
locusts.  The  family  Blattidae  contains  nearly  a  thousand 
known  species  and  it  is  thought  that  eventually  several 
thousand  more  species,  now  unknown,  will  be  added  to  the 
list.  Fortunately,  most  of  these  species  occur  in  the  woods 
and  fields  away  from  human  habitations.  In  the  United 
States  only  four  or  five  species  have  become  domestic. 
A  few  species  are  found  in  the  fields  and  woods.  In 
tropical  countries,  however,  the  domestic  species  are 
numerous,  and  the  so-called  wild  species  are  abundant  and 
many  of  them  are  striking  in  color  and  of  large  size,  one 
species  having  a  wing  expanse  of  more  than  six  inches. 
As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  at  least  one  species  oc- 
curs in  the  far  North. 

Of  the  four  species  in  the  United  States  that  are  con- 
sidered pests,  one  of  them,  the  "black-beetle"  of  Europe 
is  commonly  said  to  have  come,  originally,  from  Asia. 
One  other,  the  so-called  croton-bug,  or  German  cock- 
roach, is  supposed  to  be  of  European  origin.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  origin  of  these  two  forms  is  very  obscure  and 
nothing  absolutely  definite  is  known  about  their  native 
home.  The  third  species,  the  Australian  cockroach,  is 
undoubtedly  a  native  of  Australia  and  came  to  this  coun- 
try in  ships.  The  fourth  one,  the  American  cockroach,  is  a 
home  species  native  to  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  parts 
of  America.  Thus  it  happens  that  three-fourths  of  the 
species  of  roaches  common  in  our  households  have  been 
introduced  from  foreign  countries  and  have  already 
become  as  injurious  as  in  their  original  homes. 


132  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


THE  LIFE  HISTORY   OF  COCKROACHES 

It  is  almost  an  axiom  that  something  unknown  remains 
to  be  found  out  about  almost  any  insect.  This  is  certainly 
true  of  the  life  history  of  cockroaches.  Many  guesses 
and  astonishing  statements  have  been  made  regarding  the 
time  it  takes  young  cockroaches  to  reach  maturity.  It 
has  been  said  that  four  or  five  years  are  required  for  some 
species  to  pass  through  their  life  history  from  the  egg  to  the 
adult.  We  cannot  flatly  dispute  this  statement,  but  with 
one  or  two  species,  at  least,  we  know  that  the  time  for  this 
development  is  much  less. 

Cockroaches  have  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  habit  of 
depositing  their  eggs.     Instead  of  laying  their  eggs  one  at 
a  time,  like  other  insects,  they  deposit 
them  in  batches.     The  eggs  are  held 
within  the  body  of  the  insects  and 

ind°Sed  ln   a   SOTt  °f   CaP§Ule  °r  6^- 

case,  known  as  an  ootheca  (Fig.  37). 
While  in  the  body  of  the  female  the  egg-case  apparently 
occupies  most  of  the  space  within  the  abdomen.  The 
capsule  is  more  or  less  bean-shaped  and,  in  case  of  the 
Oriental  roach,  contains  just  sixteen  eggs  arranged  in 
two  rows.  The  eggs  are  more  or  less  outlined  within 
the  egg-case  by  line-like  depressions  between  them. 
When  the  egg-case  is  first  deposited  it  is  creamy  white  in 
color,  but  within  two  or  three  days  it  turns  to  a  dark 
brown  nearly  like  the  body  of  the  parent.  No  very  exact 
observations  are  known  to  the  author  which  determine 
definitely  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  one  female  roach ; 
but  Seiss  confined  three  females  of  the  Oriental  cockroach 
and  observed  them  to  deposit  twenty-five  cases,  an 


COCKROACHES  133 

average  of  about  eight  for  each  one,  before  they  died. 
The  twenty-five  capsules  were  deposited  between  April 
20th  and  September  6th  of  the  same  season. 

Often  the  egg-case  is  not  deposited  free  from  the  ab- 
domen at  once,  but  is  carried  about  by  the  female  with  the 
end  of  the  capsule  projecting  from  the  posterior  end  of 
the  body  (Plate  II).  C.  V.  Riley  has  said  that  "The 
female  cockroach  carries  the  egg-case  about  with  her  until 
the  young  are  ready  to  emerge,  when  it  is  dropped."  Other 
observers  have  found  that  the  egg-cases  are  not  carried 
by  the  female  more  than  four  or  five  days  at  the  most. 
Butler  says :  "When  full  the  case  protrudes  from  the  end 
of  the  abdomen  of  the  female,  and  is  carried  about  by  her 
in  this  position  for  about  a  week,  after  which  it  is  dropped 
into  a  suitable  crevice  in  a  warm  situation." 

The  observer,  Hummel,  who  watched  the  life  history 
of  the  German  cockroach,  says  that  the  young  molted  six 
times  before  becoming  full-grown  and  that  they  spent 
from  three  to  five  months  or  even  longer  in  completing 
their  growth.  When  the  nymphs  first  shed  their  skins 
they  are  soft  and  whitish  in  color,  but  soon  harden  and 
change  to  a  darker  color.  He  also  states  that  the  mother 
sometimes  assists  the  young  to  escape  from  the  egg-case 
by  tearing  it  open  with  her  jaws,  thus  providing  a  means 
of  egress  for  the  young. 

Marlatt  says  that  the  common  American  roach  (Peri- 
planeta  americana)  has  been  carried  from  the  egg  to  the 
adult  state  in  the  Insectary  at  Washington  and  that  the 
young  which  hatched  July  11  reached  their  full  growth 
between  March  14  and  June  12  of  the  following  year.  In 
this  case,  then,  nearly  twelve  months  were  needed  to 
attain  the  adult  stage. 


134  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  in  the  cases  which  have  been 
actually  observed,  the  cockroach  completed  its  growth  in 
much  less  time  than  has  commonly  been  reported.  Un- 
doubtedly the  time  consumed  in  the  development  of  young 
cockroaches  depends  upon  the  temperature,  amount  of 
food  available,  and  other  surrounding  conditions.  Perhaps 
a  scarcity  of  food,  low  temperature,  and  other  unfavorable 
conditions  might  combine  to  retard  the  development  of 
the  nymphs  and  prolong  it  for  years. 

DOMESTIC   SPECIES   OF  COCKROACHES 

There  are  four  principal  species  of  cockroaches  that 
frequent  dwellings,  other  buildings,  and  ships,  and  cause 
the  trouble  that  we  have  described  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

Probably  the  best  known  and  most  disliked  of  the  four  is 
the  German  cockroach,  or  croton-bug,  Ectobia  germanica, 
as  it  is  known  in  this  country  (Plate  II).  This  species, 
so  abundant  in  Germany  and  adjoining  countries,  is 
now  widely  distributed  all  over  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern parts  of  the  United  States  and  when  it  once  enters 
a  house  it  increases  so  steadily  that  it  becomes  exceedingly 
numerous.  In  a  single  fumigation  of  a  small  pantry  and 
kitchen,  the  writer  has  killed  over  a  gallon  of  these 
roaches  by  actual  measure.  Yet  during  the  daytime  they 
were  not  in  special  evidence,  but  their  trails,  odor,  and 
general  filth  were  everywhere  and  in  everything. 

It  is  the  smallest  one  of  the  domestic  species  and  the 
most  difficult  to  get  rid  of  or  control.  Moreover,  it  in- 
creases faster  than  the  others  because  it  lays  more  eggs  at 
a  time  and  the  young  complete  their  growth  sooner  than 
those  of  the  other  species.  It  is  light  brown  in  color 


COCKROACHES 


135 


with  two  characteristic  dark  brown  lines  on  the  thorax 
and  is  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  long. 

Perhaps  next  to  the  croton-bug  the  American  cockroach, 
Periplaneta  americana,  is  the  most  common  and  most 
widely  distributed  in  this  country  (Fig.  38).  It  is  the 
largest  one  of  the  four  and  the  wings  are  long  and  well 
developed.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  common  in  the  middle 
and  western  United  States  than  anywhere  else  and 
formerly  was  the  most  troublesome  species  in  these  sec- 
tions. In  Texas  it  is  abundant  and 
in  some  localities,  at  least,  is  a  great 
pest,  especially  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  state.  This  roach  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  semitropical  or 
tropical  origin,  and  very  likely,  the 
conditions  in  southern  Texas  are 
especially  favorable  to  its  existence. 

This  species  is  a  well-known  in- 
habitant of  feed  mills  and  becomes 
a  nuisance  and  a  costly  occupant, 
because  of  the  food-stuffs  it  not 
only  eats  but  renders  unfit  for 
market.  The  basement  of  a  corn  mill  in  Cuero,  Texas, 
was  investigated  in  search  of  some  specimens  of  the 
American  roach.  The  basement  of  the  mill  was  found 
to  be  literally  alive  with  them  and  an  abundance  of 
specimens  was  obtained  in  a  few  minutes.  They  were 
a  nuisance  in  the  mill,  but  very  difficult  to  get  rid  of. 

Kellogg,  in  "American  Insects,"  says  that  a  friend  of  his 
in  Mazatlan,  Mexico,  sent  him  "quarts  of  large  native 
American  roaches  which  he  readily  scooped  up  from  his 
bedroom  floor."  He  further  says  that  ships  come  into 


FIG.  38.  —  American 
cockroach.     (X  1.) 


136  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

San  Francisco  with  the  sailors  wearing  gloves  on  their 
hands  while  asleep,  to  keep  the  hordes  of  roaches  from 
gnawing  off  their  finger-nails.  These  particular  roaches 
are  the  most  annoying  ones  on  board  ships.  Moreover, 
they  are  responsible  for  serious  injury  to  books  because 
they  like  the  starchy  matter  among  the  bindings.  Insect 
Life  records  an  instance  of  serious  injury  by  this  roach  to 
the  bindings  of  books  in  the  National  Treasurer's  Depart- 
ment at  Washington.  Many  of  the  books  in  the  basement 
had  their  backs  eaten  off  although  they  were  up  on  the 

higher  shelves  and 
in  dry  situations. 
Many  of  the  reports, 
bound  in  cloth,  had 
been  badly  eaten 
both  on  the  backs 
and  covers,  thus 
presenting  a  cor- 

FIG.  39.  —  Oriental  cockroach,  (x  i)  roded  appearance. 

It  seemed  that  the 

American  roach  went  no  higher  than  one  or  two  stories 
and  few  of  them  above  the  basement. 

The  third  species,  Blatta  orientalis,  is  known  as  the 
Oriental  cockroach  (Fig.  39)  or  "black-beetle,"  the  latter 
name  being  applied  to  it  in  England  especially.  It  is 
quite  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  especially 
in  the  East  and  South.  It  is  the  most  common  roach 
in  England  and  probably  came  to  America  with  the 
early  colonists.  It  came  originally  from  the  tropical 
parts  of  Asia,  but  has  adapted  itself  to  its  changed 
environment  with  very  great  success.  It  is  a  dark 
brown  roach,  becoming  almost  black  in  the  older  female 


COCKROACHES 


137 


specimens,  and  is  considerably  larger  and  stouter  than 
the  croton-bug. 

The  males  and  females  differ  considerably  from  each 
other.  The  males  are  smaller  and  not  so  stout  as  the 
females  and  are  furnished  with  two  pairs  of  shortened 
wings.  The  females  are  wingless,  or  nearly  so,  very  dark 
colored,  and  allow  their  abdomens  to  drag  almost  on  the 
ground  when  in 
movement.  This 
species  is  some- 
what socialistic  in 
its  habits,  many 
individuals  living 
together  in  peace- 
able relations  with 
one  another. 

The  last  species, 
Periplaneta  austral- 
asice,  of  importance 
as  a  domestic  pest, 
is  the  Australian 
roach  (Fig.  40), 
common  especially 

in  the  Southern  states.  It  resembles  the  American 
roach,  although  it  is  not  so  large.  Moreover,  it  has 
one  striking  characteristic  that  serves  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  American  roach,  namely,  a  bright,  clearly 
defined  yellow  band  on  the  thorax  and  a  narrow  yellow 
spot  on  each  front  wing.  It  is*  not  so  well  and  so  widely 
known  as  a  house  pest  as  the  croton-bug  or  the  Oriental 
cockroach,  but  it  is  impossible  to  predict  regarding  its 
future  development. 


FIG.  40.  —  Australian  roach.     (X 


138  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


METHODS  OF    CONTROL 

Cockroaches  are  among  the  most  difficult  to  control  of 
the  household  pests.  They  are  difficult  to  reach  because 
they  are  especially  adapted  with  their  flat,  thin  bodies  for 
hiding  away  in  inaccessible  cracks,  crevices,  and  crannies. 
Moreover,  they  are  wary  and  shy  of  all  baits  and  traps. 
The  croton-bug  is  the  most  difficult  one  of  all  to  get  rid  of. 
It  seems  to  display  more  caution  in  avoiding  traps  and 
baits  than  most  of  the  others,  and  as  it  increases  faster,  it 
becomes  much  more  abundant. 

Fumigation.  —  Here,  again,  as  with  the  bedbug,  fumiga- 
tion with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  one  of  the  most  efficient 
methods  we  have  of  fighting  roaches.  It  is  used  in  the 
same  manner  and  in  the  same  proportions  as  set  forth  in 
the  chapter  on  the  bedbug.  Unfortunately,  the  rooms  in 
which  roaches  are  generally  found  are  usually  less  tightly 
built  and  have  more  openings  than  the  other  rooms  of  the 
house.  Therefore,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  stop- 
ping the  cracks  and  openings  so  that  the  gas  will  not  dis- 
sipate itself.  The  author  has  used  this  gas  in  fumigating 
pantries  and  kitchens  with  fine  success  in  most  cases.  In 
one  or  two  instances,  wrhere  the  kitchen  was  very  loosely 
built,  as  is  often  the  case  in  warm  regions,  the  roaches 
escaped  through  the  cracks  before  the  gas,  which  dissi- 
pated itself  through  the  same  openings,  had  time  to  do  its 
work. 

In  small  rooms  that  can  be  tightly  closed  and  in  which 
no  fires  or  lights  are  present  carbon  bisulfide  can  be  used 
to  advantage.  This  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid  with  a 
rather  unpleasant  odor  that  evaporates  rapidly  when 
exposed  to  the  air.  All  animals  succumb  to  the  effects  of 


COCKROACHES  139 

the  gas  when  confined  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  it  in  a 
closed  space.  It  is  especially  suited  for  fumigating  bath- 
rooms and  pantries  and  may  be  used  in  kitchens  if  there  is 
no  fire  in  the  stove.  The  gas  from  carbon  bisulfide 
is  inflammable  and  explosive  and  great  care  must  be 
exercised  in  its  use.  It  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  to  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  best  way 
to  apply  it  is  to  pour  it  into  shallow  vessels,  tin  pans  or 
basins,  close  the  room  tightly,  and  allow  it  to  remain 
closed  from  36  to  48  hours.  Time  should  be  given  for  all 
of  the  liquid  to  evaporate  and  for  the  gas  to  do  its  work. 
After  the  fumigation  is  completed  the  doors  and  windows 
should  be  opened  and  the  room  thoroughly  aired.  While 
the  fumigation  is  going  on  no  light  or  fire,  in  any  form, 
should  be  brought  near  the  room. 

Buhach.  —  Another  substance  used  in  fumigating  for 
cockroaches  is  pyrethrum,  or  buhach.  This  is  a  powder 
obtained  by  pulverizing  the  flowers  of  a  plant,  pyrethrum, 
that  is  now  grown  in  California.  Our  pyrethrum  used  to 
come  from  Persia  and  when  it  arrived  here  its  strength 
was  often  greatly  weakened,  especially  after  it  had  stood 
on  the  shelves  of  a  store  awaiting  a  purchaser.  Now, 
since  it  is  produced  in  California,  we  are  much  more  apt  to 
get  it  fresh.  The  American  product  is  sold  more  commonly 
under  the  name  buhach.  By  moistening  the  powdered 
buhach  it  can  be  molded  into  cones  which,  when  thoroughly 
dried  in  an  oven,  can  be  lighted  at  the  tips  and  will  burn 
slowly  and  steadily  until  consumed.  The  fumes  are  not 
poisonous  to  human  beings  and  they  are  not  explosive, 
but  are  often  more  effective  against  the  cockroach  than  is 
the  powder  applied  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Traps.  —  Westwood  has  described  a  simple  trap  for 


140 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


catching  cockroaches  as  follows:  "Various  plans  have 
been  suggested  for  their  destruction,  but  the  most  service- 
able method  is  to  use  a  small  wooden  box,  having  a  cir- 
cular hole  at  the  top  fitted  with  a  glass  rim,  out  of  which  it 
is  impossible  for  them  to  escape.  It  should  be  nightly 

baited  and  the  con- 
tents thrown  the 
next  morning  into 
scalding  water." 

FIG.  41.  —  Cross-section  of  a  roach  trap.  In      Fig.      41      a 

cross-section     of 

such  a  trap  is  shown.  A  straight  lamp  chimney  sus- 
pended firmly  in  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  cover  serves 
for  the  glass  rim.  The  upper  end  of  the  chimney  should 
be  set  just  flush  with  the  cover.  Pieces  of  cake,  cheese, 
or  similar  attractive  bait  may  be  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box  to  lure  the  roaches.  Inclined  strips  of  paste- 
board or  thin  boards  placed  against  the  box  as  shown 
in  the  figure  will  afford  easy  access  for  the  roaches  to 
the  traps.  When  once  the  insects  have  entered  such 
a  trap  they  cannot 
escape.  Certain  ex- 
perimenters claim  to 
have  had  fine  success  in 
catching  roaches  with 
this  style  of  trap. 

In  Fig.  42  is  shown  a  simple  style  of  trap.  It  is 
simply  a  circular  tin  box  baited  with  bits  of  material 
attractive  to  roaches  and  provided  with  inclined  runways 
to  make  it  easy  for  the  insects  to  enter.  A  trap  of  this 
kind  may  be  made  from  one  of  the  ordinary  cans  in  which 
coffee  is  often  sold.  One  should  select  a  deep  can  and  use 


FIG.  42.  —  Tin  box  trap  for  roache 


COCKROACHES  141 

only  those  that  are  bright  and  smooth  inside.  The 
roaches  after  they  have  once  entered  the  trap  cannot 
climb  up  the  sides  of  such  boxes  and  escape. 

Again,  in  Plate  II  is  shown  a  somewhat  more  modern 
idea  of  a  roach  trap.  The  holes  in  the  side  of  the  box  are 
fitted  with  cone-shaped  tubes,  the  outer  ends  of  which  are 
just  flush  with  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  sides  of  the  box. 
The  roaches  easily  find  their  way  into  the  box  through 
the  cones  in  search  of  the  food  inside,  but  cannot  find  their 
way  out. 

Roaches,  in  general,  are  very  fond  of  stale  beer  and 
advantage  is  taken  of  this,  especially  in  England,  to  trap 
them  by  drowning  them  in  this  liquid.  Any  deep  jar  will 
serve  for  the  purpose.  It  is  partially  filled  with  the  beer 
and  sticks  are  then  inclined  against  the  jar  on  the  outside 
and  bent  over  until  they  project  into  the  beer.  The 
roaches  climb  up  the  sticks  and  slip  down  into  the  liquid 
in  which  they  are  drowned. 

A  rather  unique  way  of  killing  roaches  is  described  by 
Tepper  of  Australia.  Plaster  of  Paris,  one  part,  is  mixed 
with  flour,  three  or  four  parts,  in  a  saucer,  and  placed 
where  the  roaches  are  abundant.  Near  by  is  placed  a 
flat  dish  containing  water,  with  bridges  arranged  so  that 
the  roaches  can  easily  get  to  it.  They  eat  of  the  flour  and 
plaster  of  Paris  and  then  drink  the  water.  As  a  result, 
the  plaster  of  Paris  sets  in  the  intestines  and  kills  them. 
At  any  rate,  they  disappear. 

Powders.  —  Buhach  or  pyrethrum  is  often  used  as  a 
powder  against  cockroaches  and  when  it  can  be  procured 
in  a  fresh  condition  and  is  used  persistently  much  good 
can  be  accomplished.  It  seems  to  be  more  effective  against 
the  three  large  species  than  against  the  croton-bug. 


142  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

However,  one  application  will  accomplish  little  with  any 
of  them.  It  must  be  dusted  over  the  floor,  behind  the 
boxes,  on  the  shelves,  and  in  every  other  place  frequented 
by  the  roaches  several  nights  in  succession  and  subse- 
quently should  the  roaches  appear  again. 

A  powder,  known  as  Insectoline,  manufactured  by  the 
Insectoline  Company,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  has  given  good 
results  in  fighting  these  insects.  The  author  has  used  it 
in  kitchens  and  pantries  with  satisfactory  effect.  A  large 
dwelling-house  at  Stonewall,  Mississippi,  that  had  be- 
come unbearably  infested  with  the  croton-bug  was  rid 
of  them  by  the  use  of  this  powder.  The  owner  was 
very  enthusiastic  in  its  praise.  In  order  to  get  the  best 
results  with  this  powder  it  must  be  applied  thoroughly 
and  persistently. 

Borax.  —  F.  L.  Washburn,  after  failures  with  several 
so-called  remedies  for  cockroaches,  tried  powdered  borax 
and  has  this  to  say  concerning  its  value  as  an  exterminator 
of  roaches :  "  We  then  turned  to  powdered  borax,  using  it 
freely  in  the  kitchen,  with  marked  success.  This  was 
sprinkled  in  cracks  about  the  sink,  along  the  top  of  base- 
boards, near  the  sink,  and  elsewhere  wherever  there  were 
cracks  which  afforded  the  insects  a  hiding  place.  By  a 
generous  use  of  this  substance,  persisted  in  for  two  weeks, 
the  room,  in  fact,  we  may  say  the  premises,  were  entirely 
freed  from  this  disgusting  pest.  Others  to  whom  it  has  been 
recommended  report  the  same  success,  and  in  conversation 
with  other  economic  entomologists  we  hear  unqualified 
praise  for  the  'borax  method.'  " 

Whatever  powder  or  other  substance  is  used  it  must 
be  applied  in  large  quantities  over  an  extended  period  of 
time.  Moreover,  the  material  must  be  applied  fre- 


COCKROACHES  143 

quently  and  at  short  intervals.  Persistence  and  thorough- 
ness are  absolutely  essential  to  the  successful  control  of 
cockroaches. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  COCKROACHES 

1882.     LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Remedy  for  the  cockroach.     First  Rept., 

N.  Y.  Ins.,  p.  343. 
1888.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Injury  done  by  roaches  to  the  files  in  the 

Treasury  at  Washington.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  I,  p.  67. 

1895.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Migration  of  cockroaches.     Insect  Life, 
Vol.  VII,  p.  349. 

1896.  SEISS,  C.  F.  —  The  breeding  habits  of  Periplaneta  orientalis. 
Ento.  News,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  148-150. 

1896.     BUTLER,  A.  E.  —  Household  insects,  pp.  116-146. 
1896.     MARLATT,  C.  L.  — Household  insects.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  84-95. 

1896.  BECKWITH,  M.   H.  —  A  remedy  for  cockroaches.     Eighth 
Ann.  Rept.  of  the  Del.  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  114.' 

1897.  LUGGER,  OTTO.  —  The  Orthoptera  of  Minnesota.     Bull.  55, 
Minn.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  177-187. 

1902.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  Cockroaches.     Circ.  51,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-15. 

1903.  WASHBURN,  F.  L.  —  Experiments  with  cockroaches.     Eighth 
Ann.  Rept.  of  the  State  Ent.  of  Minn.,  pp.  162-163. 

1903.  HOULBERT,  G.  —  Les  insectes  ennemis  des  livres,  pp.  127- 
150. 

1904.  SURFACE,  H.  A.  —  Remedies  for  cockroaches.     Ann.  Rept.  of 
the  Penn.  State  Dept.  Agri.,  for  1903,  p.  175. 

1905.  URITTON,  W.  E.  —  Books  injured  by  cockroaches.     Fourth 
Rept.  of  the  State  Ent.  of  Conn.,  p.  215. 

1905.  KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  American  insects,  p.  126. 

1906.  WASHBURN,  F.   L.  —  Cockroaches.    Eleventh  Ann.   Rept. 
of  the  State  Ent.  of  Minn.,  p.  72. 

1907.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual  for  the  study  of  insects,  p.  106. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FLEAS 
Pulex  irritans,   et  al. 

PERHAPS  by  the  time  that  this  comes  from  the  printer 
nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  fleas  will  have  been 
found  to  exist  in  the  world.  Something  over  one  hundred 
are  now  known  and  about  fifty  have  been  recorded  from 
this  country  alone.  It  seems  that  we  are  very  rich  in 
species  of  fleas,  and,  at  times,  are  richer  in  individuals  than 
we  desire.  Fleas  occur  on  a  great  variety  of  animals. 
These  insects  have  been  found  on  the  dog,  cat,  rat,  squirrel, 
woodchuck,  opossum,  grizzly  bear,  weasel,  mole,  mice, 
and  other  mammals  and  on  birds.  Two  species,  at  least, 
are  occasionally  serious  pests  to  the  domestic  fowl  and 
two  species  attack  man. 

THE   FORM   AND    STRUCTURE   OF   A   FLEA 

A  flea  has  a  body  peculiarly  well  fashioned  for  the  place 
in  which  it  has  chosen  to  live.  In  the  first  place,  its  body 
is  compressed,  that  is,  flattened  from  left  to  right.  When 
we  recall  that  a  flea  lives  and  moves  about  among  hairs  set 
close  together  we  can  readily  see  how  much  better  a  com- 
pressed body  is  suited  for  movement  among  such  objects 
than  a  wide,  flat  body  would  be.  In  fact,  so  large  an  insect 
as  a  flea  could  move  with  difficulty  through  a  thickly  set 
144 


FLEAS  145 

coat  of  hair  if  its  body  were  flat  and  thin  like  that  of  a 
bedbug.  In  the  second  place,  many  fleas  have  strong 
spine-like  hairs  projecting  backward  from  the  posterior 
edges  of  the  body  segments.  Undoubtedly,  these  pro- 
jecting spines  catch  around  the  bases  of  the  hairs  and 
serve  to  prevent  the  insect  from  slipping  backward  and 
enable  it  to  push  steadily  forward.  If  a  flea  is  caught 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  it  will  gradually  work 
forward  in  spite  of  our  best  efforts  and  finally  escape. 
Fleas  do  not  have  wings  and  are  therefore  unable  to  fly. 
On  the  other  hand,  their  legs  are  very  long  and  well  fitted 
for  jumping,  especially  the  hind  ones.  So  that  the  lack 
of  wings  does  not  seriously  handicap  them  in  getting  around 
from  room  to  room  or  from  one  animal  to  another.  More- 
over, each  foot  is  furnished  with  two  claws,  which  enable 
them  to  cling  tenaciously  to  the  hairs  of  their  hosts.  In 
some  interesting  experiments  made  to  determine  the 
jumping  ability  of  the  human  flea,  Mitzmain  starved  a 
female  five  days  and  then  measured  her  jumps  made  on  a 
smooth  surface  of  wood.  The  four  jumps  recorded 
measured  10.5,  11,  12,  and  13  inches,  respectively,  an 
average  of  llf  inches.  He  also  determined  that  a  human 
flea  could  jump  at  least  7|  inches  in  a  perpendicular  di- 
rection. 

The  eyes  of  fleas  are  simple,  and  in  some  species,  at 
least,  are  almost  if  not  quite  useless  as  organs  of  vision. 

The  mouth  of  a  flea  is  constructed  for  piercing  the  flesh 
and  sucking  the  blood.  The  mouth  parts  are  composed 
of  several  long,  slender  organs,  three  of  which  serve  for 
piercing  and  all  of  them  together  form  the  sucking  tube. 
It  is  a  very  effective  apparatus  for  obtaining  blood  from 
its  host.  The  human  flea  is  exceedingly  bloodthirsty, 


146  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  blood  is  squirted  from 
the  anus  while  it  is  feeding. 

KINDS  OF  FLEAS  COMMONLY  FOUND    IN  DWELLING-HOUSES 

There  are  two  species  of  fleas  that  become  common  in 
dwelling-houses  in  the  United  States  and  act  as  a  source 
of  irritation.  These  are  the  human  flea,  Pulex  irritans, 
and  the  cat  and  dog  flea,  Ctenocephalus  canis.  Most 
of  the  fleas  that  we  have  found  infesting  dwelling-houses 
in  the  East  and  South  have  been  the  cat  and  dog  flea.  A 
pet  dog  or  cat  is  very  liable  to  become  the  source  of  in- 
festation from  this  flea. 

The  author  has  seen  dwelling-houses  literally  overrun 
with  fleas  that  had  originated  from  a  pet  cat.  In  one 
instance,  in  which  a  house  had  been  closed  only  three  or 
four  weeks  in  the  absence  of  the  mistress,  but  which  had 
remained  accessible,  in  the  meantime,  to  the  pet  cat,  the 
fleas  had  become  so  abundant  that  one  could  not  stay  in 
the  lower  rooms  with  any  degree  of  comfort. 

That  the  cat  and  dog  flea  is  the  more  common  species 
infesting  houses  in  the  eastern  United  States  is  also  con- 
firmed by  the  records  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Entomology,  for  Howard  says:  "Judging  from  the  speci- 
mens of  fleas  sent  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  recent 
years  with  complaints  of  houses  being  infested  by  them, 
the  human  flea,  Pulex  irritans  (Fig.  43),  is  not  the  species 
most  likely  to  occur  in  great  numbers  in  dwelling-houses 
in  this  country,  but  rather  the  common  cosmopolitan  flea 
of  the  dog  and  cat,  Ctenocephalus  canis  (Fig.  44).  This 
holds  especially  for  the  eastern  United  States." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  human  flea  does  occasionally 


FLEAS 


147 


FIG.  43.  —  Human  flea,  much  enlarged. 


seem  to  frequent  houses  in  the  East  in  large  numbers, 

especially    along    the    Atlantic    Coast.     For    instance, 

a    correspondent    from 

Brooklyn    writes    that 

he    finds    his    summer 

home   on   Long  Island 

badly     infested      with 

fleas   and    sends    some 

specimens  for  determi- 
nation. These  proved 

to  be  the  human  flea. 

In  California  and  along 

the   Pacific   Coast    the 

human  flea  is  evidently 

by  far  the  most  abun- 
dant species  found  in  the  abodes  of  man.  Doane  gives 
a  list  of  the  fleas  collected 
from  human  hosts  and 
houses  in  San  Francisco 
from  February  to  June, 
1908.  In  all,  916  fleas 
were  taken,  of  which  913 
were  human  fleas  and  3 
were  the  common  rat  flea, 
C.  fasciatus.  McCoy  and 
Mitzmain  record  the  fleas 
taken  from  29  different  in- 
dividuals in  California  in 

FIG.  44. -Cat  and  dog  flea,  much     one    year     ag     337     human 
enlarged.  _  .         . 

fleas  and  only  5  specimens 

of  other  species.     This  would  indicate  that  Pulex  irritans 
is  the  normal  parasitic  flea  of  man  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 


148  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  human  flea  also  occurs  in  large  numbers,  at  times, 
on  rats,  cats,  dogs,  and  in  fewer  numbers  on  mice.  In 
fact,  it  seems  quite  certain  that  whenever  a  house  be- 
comes infested  with  human  fleas,  the  rats  in  that  house 
will  also  be  found  abundantly  infested  with  them. 

When  dwellings  are  left  vacant  for  a  length  of  time 
they  are  often  found,  on  the  return  of  the  occupants, 
abundantly  infested  with  fleas.  This  has  led  to  the  popu- 
lar opinion  that  these  insects  are  sometimes  spontaneously 
generated.  Evidence  seems  to  show  that,  under  normal 
conditions,  mammalian  blood  is  necessary  for  the  pairing 
and  oviposition  of  adult  fleas.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  to  have  been  fairly  well  established  by  different 
observers,  that  adult  fleas  can  increase  in  deserted  dwellings 
for  some  time  without  the  necessity  of  the  normal  supply 
of  food.  Larvae  of  fleas  have  been  found  in  sweepings 
from  the  cracks  of  floors  in  deserted  houses  and  adult 
fleas  bred  from  them.  In  the  light  of  these  facts,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  a  vacant  house  often  becomes  badly 
infested  with  these  insects. 

OTHER    FLEAS    FOUND    OCCASIONALLY    ATTACKING    MAN 

In  India  and  other  countries  where  the  plague  occurs, 
the  flea  (Lcemopsylla  cheopis)  is  the  common  flea  on  rats 
and  it  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  plague  flea.  This 
flea  now  occurs  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region  and 
occasionally  attacks  man.  This  is  probably  the  principal 
flea  concerned  in  carrying  the  plague. 

The  common  rat  flea  in  the  United  States  is  a  much 
larger  species,  Ceratophyllus  fasciatus.  It  is  also  fre- 
quently found  on  man. 


FLEAS  149 

There  is  another  flea  (Rhynchoprion  penetrans)  with 
peculiar  habits  and  variously  known  as  the  "jigger," 
"jigger  flea,"  "chigoe,"  and  "chique,"  that  occurs  in 
tropical  and  subtropical  America.  It  attacks  man  and 
causes  much  annoyance  and  serious  injury.  It  is  also 
found  on  the  dog,  cat,  sheep,  goat,  cattle,  horses,  asses, 
mules,  and  even  birds. 

The  adult  female,  after  impregnation,  burrows  into  the 
flesh  of  the  host,  especially  under  the  toe  nails.  Here, 
the  presence  of  the  flea  causes  swelling  and  finally  ulcera- 
tion  that  sometimes  becomes  very  serious  in  its  final 
effects. 

The  hen  flea,  Argopsylla  gallinacea,  occasionally  passes 
to  man  as  a  temporary  host. 

THE   LIFE  HISTORY  OF  FLEAS 

The  life  history  of  a  flea  is  similar  to  that  of  a  house-fly 
in  that  there  are  four  distinct  stages  during  the  full  de- 
velopment of  a  flea,  namely,  egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  adult. 

A  flea  does  not  pass  its  whole  life  history  on  the  host 
which  it  infests.  Only  the  mature  stage  or  adult  is  found 
on  the  infested  animal,  the  other  stages  being  spent  in 
quite  different  situations. 

The  eggs  of  the  dog  and  cat  flea  are  deposited,  as  a  rule, 
while  the  insect  is  on  the  body  of  the  host.  It  is  probable 
that  in  many  instances  the  eggs  are  deposited  on  floors, 
carpets,  or  cloths  upon  which  the  dog  or  cat  may  be  walk- 
ing or  lying.  If  laid  while  the  parent  flea  is  on  the  host, 
they  are  not  attached  permanently  to  the  hairs  and  do  not 
remain  on  the  body  of  the  dog  or  cat,  but  quickly  fall  off. 
There  are  usually  numbers  of  eggs  around  the  spot  where 


150  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

a  flea-infested  dog  or  cat  has  been  lying.  We  recall  a  pet 
dog  that  came  to  the  room  and  lay  down  a  few  minutes 
on  a  piece  of  dark  blue  cloth  spread  on  the  floor.  After 
the  dog  had  gone  the  writer  noted  many  white  specks  on 
the  cloth  and  on  carrying  it  to  the  light  and  examining  it 
carefully  with  a  lens  twelve  beautiful  pearly  white  flea 
eggs  were  found.  These,  of  course,  had  fallen  from  the 
dog  during  the  short  time  he  had  been  lying  on  the  cloth. 
The  dog  received  a  thorough  bathing  in  a  solution  of 
creolin  and  his  kennel,  a  barrel,  was  cleaned  by  burning 
a  large  handful  of  excelsior  in  it,  while  the  matting  upon 
which  the  dog  had  lain  was  burned. 

The  eggs  are  white  and  waxy,  plainly  visible  to  the  eye, 
oval  in  shape,  and  it  would  take 
about  forty  of  them,  placed  end 
to  end,  to  reach  an  inch  (Fig. 
45). 

The  eggs  that  fall  upon  the 
carpets  or  floors  in  a  house  or 
on  the  sleeping  cloths  of  the  cats 
FIG.  45.  —  Egg  of  dog  flea,     and  dogs  soon  hatch  into  minute, 
white,    worm-like    larvae.      The 

body  is  composed  of  thirteen  segments  and  the  head  bears 
biting  mouth  parts,  but  no  eyes.  The  larvae  are  active, 
wriggling  creatures  and  they  soon  crawl  away  into  cracks 
and  crevices,  where  they  feed  upon  whatever  organic 
matter  they  can  find.  In  these  situations,  they  attain 
their  growth  in  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  and  then  spin  a  fine,  white,  silken  cocoon 
(Fig.  46),  often  covered  with  dust,  inside  of  which  they 
change  to  a  quiet,  inactive  form,  the  pupa.  After  a 
week  or  ten  days,  the  pupa  transforms  to  the  adult  flea 


FLEAS 


151 


FIG.  46.  —  Larva  of  a  flea,  above; 
cocoon,  below,  much  enlarged. 


ready,  after  feeding,  to  deposit  eggs  for  another  genera- 
tion. Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  a  generation 
of  fleas  may  be  produced  in  almost  two  weeks.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  a 
longer  time  is  needed  under 
most  conditions. 

Simons,  who  reared  some 
cat  fleas  from  the  eggs, 
found  that  the  eggs  hatched 
in  a  little  over  two  days  and 
that  the  larvae  became  full 
grown  in  seven  days.  They 
then  spun  their  cocoons,  and 
after  lying  quietly  in  them 
for  eight  days  more,  during 
which  time  they  changed  to  pupse,  came  forth  as  adults. 
Thus  it  took  seventeen  days  for  the  development  of  a 
full  generation. 

Howard  relates  that  in  Washington  in  several  rearings 
of  the  cat  and  dog  fleas  the  eggs  hatched  in  from  two  to 
four  days,  the  larvse  attained  their  growth  in  from  seven 
to  sixteen  or  twenty  days,  and  the  pupal  state  consumed 
from  five  to  fourteen  days.  Here,  again,  we  see  that  a 
single  generation  may  be  produced  in  a  little  more  than 
fourteen  days.  Other  observers  give  the  period  of  de- 
velopment as  4  to  6  weeks  and  9  to  10  weeks  for  the 
human  flea.  Evidently  the  period  varies  with  the  tem- 
perature and  other  environmental  factors.  For  example, 
in  the  colder  season,  the  pupal  stage  of  the  human  flea 
may  occupy  as  long  as  thirty-four  days. 

The  following  table  compiled  by  Mitzmain  shows  the 
cycle  of  development  of  fleas  in  different  countries. 


152 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


COUNTRY  AND 
SPECIES  OP  FLEA 

EGO 

LABVA 

PUPA 

COMPLETE 
GENERATION 

India 

L.  cheopis 

2  days 

1  week 

7  to  14  days 

21  to  22  days 

Australia 

P.  irritant 

6  days 

12  days 

14  days 

4  to  6  weeks 

P.  irritant 

4  to  6  days 

11  days 

12  days 

4  to  6  weeks 

Ct.  cam's 

2  weeks 

12  days 

10  to  16  days 

5  to  6  weeks 

United  States 

Atlantic  coast 

P.  irritans\ 
Ct.  canis    } 

2  to  4  days 

8  to  24  days 

5  to  7  days 

2  to  4  weeks 

Pacific  coast 

P.  irritans 

7  to  9  days 

28  to  32  days 

30  to  34  days 

9  to  10  weeks 

L.  cheopis 

9  to  13  days 

32  to  34  days 

25  to  30  days 

9  to  11  weeks 

C.  acutus 

7  to  8  days 

26  to  28  days 

24  to  27  days 

8  to  9  weeks 

C.  fasciatus 

5  to  6  days 

24  to  27  days 

24  to  26  days 

7  to  8  weeks 

It  has  been  found  difficult  to  maintain  just  the  right 
degree  of  moisture  for  the  larvae  to  thrive.  The  rearing 
cages  are  either  too  moist  or  too  dry  and  many  of  the 
larvae  die  before  reaching  maturity.  In  his  own  work 
with  the  larvae  of  the  hen  flea,  Argopsylla  gallinacea,  the 
author  has  had  much  difficulty  in  rearing  them  and  was, 
in  fact,  unable  to  rear  any  to  maturity  from  the  few  eggs 
he  was  fortunate  enough  to  obtain.  Mitzmain  says  that 
the  human  flea  develops  very  satisfactorily  in  material 
composed  of  the  sweepings  taken  from  cracks  in  the  floor. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  the  great  majority  of  larvae  die 
under  the  conditions  in  which  they  find  themselves. 

It  has  long  been  a  question  regarding  the  food  of  the 
larvae.  Some  authors  have  held  that  the  adult  human 
flea  fed  its  young  upon  dried  blood.  This  is  now  thought 
to  be  very  improbable,  for  Laboulbene,  a  French  investi- 
gator, and  Mitzmain  of  the  United  States  have  found  that 
the  larvae  would  thrive  and  reach  full  growth  simply  on 


FLEAS  153 

the  sweepings  of  rooms  that  contained  no  blood  at  all. 
Multitudes  of  fleas  often  develop  in  a  house  left  empty 
during  the  summer.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  only 
food  found  by  the  larvae  under  such  circumstances  is  the 
organic  matter  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  floor, 
about  the  baseboards,  in  the  corners,  under  the  carpets, 
and  in  similar  places. 

THE   RELATION   OF   FLEAS  TO   DISEASE 

Fleas  are  now  known  to  be  active  and  menacing  agents 
in  the  conveyance  of  disease,  especially  the  bubonic 
plague. 

In  India,  where  the  bubonic  plague  often  decimates 
the  native  inhabitants,  careful  experiments  have  demon- 
strated that  the  rat  flea  found  in  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries  readily  takes  this  plague  bacillus  from  infected 
rats  and  inoculates  other  rats  with  it;  that  the  plague 
bacillus  multiplies  in  the  stomachs  of  fleas  and  that  the 
bacilli  are  found  in  the  feces  of  fleas  taken  from  dead 
infected  rats ;  that  the  bubonic  plague  does  not  persist 
in  a  locality  apart  from  infected  rats ;  that  the  rat  flea 
will  make  use  of  man  as  a  host  and  may  be  captured  in 
large  numbers  on  men  in  houses  infested  with  rats ;  and, 
lastly,  that  evidence  proves  the  rat  flea  as  the  trans- 
mitting agent  of  bubonic  plague  infection  from  rat  to  man. 

Verjbitski,  as  a  result  of  an  important  series  of  experi- 
ments that  he  made  in  1902  and  1903,  comes  to  the  follow- 
ing conclusions,  among  others,  concerning  the  relation 
of  fleas  to  the  bubonic  plague :  — 

"All  fleas  and  bugs  which  have  sucked  the  blood  of 
animals  dying  from  plague  contain  plague  microbes. 


154  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

"The  vitality  and  virulence  of  the  plague  microbes  are 
preserved  in  these  insects. 

"The  numbers  of  plague  microbes  in  the  infected  fleas 
and  bugs  increase  during  the  first  few  days. 

"The  feces  of  infected  fleas  and  bugs  contain  virulent 
plague  microbes  as  long  as  they  persist  in  the  alimentary 
canal  of  these  insects. 

"Infected  fleas  communicate  the  disease  to  healthy 
animals  for  three  days  after  infection. 

"The  injury  to  the  skin  occasioned  by  the  bite  of  bugs 
and  fleas  offers  a  channel  through  which  the  plague 
microbes  can  easily  enter  the  body  and  occasion  death 
from  plague. 

"Crushed  infected  bugs  and  fleas  and  their  feces,  like 
other  plague  material,  can  infect  through  the  small 
punctures  of  the  skin  caused  by  the  bites  of  bugs  and  fleas 
but  only  for  a  short  time  after  the  infliction  of  these  bites. 

"Human  fleas  do  bite  rats." 

The  many  investigations  that  have  been  made  of  the 
relations  of  fleas  to  the  bubonic  plague  by  different  plague 
commissions  and  individuals  point  to  the  definite  con- 
clusion that  rats  and  fleas,  are,  at  least,  the  most  im- 
portant factors  in  the  spread  of  the  disease.  The  bubonic 
plague  is  probably,  primarily,  a  disease  of  rats  and  only 
secondarily  a  human  disease.  Epidemics  of  the  plague 
seem  to  be  usually  preceded  by  this  disease  among  the 
rats  of  that  locality. 

San  Francisco,  in  her  late  fight  with  the  plague,  gave  a 
great  deal  of  attention  to  controlling  the  rats,  basing  her 
method  of  work  upon  the  foregoing  ideas  of  the  relation  of 
rats  to  the  disease  and  the  relation  of  fleas  to  rats  and  to 
man.  The  results  of  the  fight  were  eminently  successful 


FLEAS  155 

and  certainly  serve  to  strengthen  the  soundness  of  the 
theory. 

Fleas  have  also  been  suspected  of  bearing  some  relation 
to  the  dread  disease,  leprosy.  The  bacilli  of  leprosy  have 
been  found  in  the  intestines  of  certain  fleas,  and  it  seems 
quite  possible  that  the  fleas  might  carry  the  bacillus  to 
a  human  host.  However,  no  definite  proof  of  any  re- 
lation between  leprosy  and  these  insects  has  yet  been  ad- 
duced. 

Baker  has  pointed  out  that  the  rat  fleas  found  by  him 
in  Cuba  are  quite  closely  related  to  the  human  flea  and 
might,  therefore,  bite  human  beings  quite  readily.  He 
also  found  that  rats  in  a  leper  hospital  in  Cuba  often  had 
sores  on  them  very  similar  to  leprous  sores,  and  argues  that 
the  fleas  might  convey  the  bacillus  from  rats  to  man. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  the  dog  flea  is  the  inter- 
mediate host  of  the  dog  tapeworm,  Tcenia  canina.  When 
fleas  containing  the  immature  stages  of  the  tapeworm 
were  fed  to  dogs  the  development  of  the  tapeworm  in 
the  dog  followed  in  all  cases. 

METHODS   OF  CONTROL 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  regarding  the  kinds 
of  fleas  found  in  houses  and  their  rate  of  increase  that  pet 
dogs  and  cats  must  be  gotten  rid  of  or  must  be  kept  clean 
and  free  from  these  pests.  These  animals  may  be  kept 
free  from  fleas  by  frequently  bathing  them  in  a  solution 
of  creolin  and  by  paying  special  attention  to  their  sleep- 
ing places.  A  dog  or  cat  should  be  provided  with  a  sleep- 
ing cloth  or  rug  and  this  should  be  beaten  or  shaken  at 
least  once  a  week  and  hung  in  the  sunlight,  if  possible, 


156  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

for  a  few  hours.  If  infested,  the  dog  kennel  should  be 
thoroughly  washed  inside  and  out  with  a  5  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  creolin.  To  keep  it  clean  and  free  from  eggs  and 
larvae  of  fleas  it  should  be  washed  with  strong  soapsuds 
occasionally  and  once  or  twice  a  year  carefully  white- 
washed. 

To  free  a  dog  from  fleas  the  animal  should  be  bathed  in 
a  3  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  made  by  adding  4  teaspoon- 
fuls  to  a  quart  of  water  or  4  tablespoonfuls  to  a  gallon  of 
water.  For  cats,  a  2  per  cent  solution  is  strong  enough, 
for  their  skin  is  a  little  more  sensitive  than  that  of  a  dog. 
The  animal  may  be  treated  by  putting  the  solution  on 
with  a  brush  or  rag  or  by  making  enough  of  it  for  the  sub- 
mergence of  the  patient.  After  the  application,  no  more 
attention  is  needed  nor  does  the  material  need  to  be  washed 
out  of  the  hair.  It  softens  the  fur,  destroys  other  vermin 
as  well  as  fleas,  heals  scratches  or  sores  in  the  skin,  and 
will  deodorize  the  animal  and  destroy  obnoxious  smells. 

Pyrethrum,  or  buhach,  if  it  can  be  obtained  fresh,  will 
kill  or  stupefy  the  fleas  if  it  is  thoroughly  dusted  among 
the  hairs  of  the  animal.  Usually,  the  insects  will  fall  from 
the  animal,  and  they  may  then  be  swept  up  and  burned 
if  not  already  dead. 

To  clear  a  house  of  fleas  when  once  infested  is  often 
a  very  strenuous  task.  In  the  first  place,  the  source  of 
infestation,  if  it  be  a  cat  or  dog,  must  be  removed  or  freed 
from  the  pests.  In  addition  to  this,  the  removal  of  carpets 
and  a  change  to  rugs  are  recommended.  The  larvae 
of  fleas  cannot  develop  in  rooms  in  which  all  parts  of  the 
floors  are  swept  from  time  to  time.  Matting  and  carpets 
afford  fine  protection  to  the  larvae  of  fleas  and  offer 
splendid  hiding  places  with  plenty  of  dust  containing 


FLEAS  157 

organic  matter  for  their  development.  No  scheme  of 
floor  covering  could  be  better  for  fleas.  In  severe  in- 
festations nothing  but  the  removal  of  all  floor  coverings 
followed  by  a  thorough  washing  of  the  floors  with  strong 
soapsuds  will  avail. 

Sometimes  the  persistent  use  of  buhach,  in  which  it  is 
sifted  over  the  carpets,  along  the  baseboards,  and  in  all 
hiding  places  for  fleas,  becomes  effectual.  But,  in  some 
cases,  it  has  utterly  failed. 

Again,  sprinkling  the  carpets  and  floors  with  benzine 
is  often  successful.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  re- 
garding fire  while  benzine  is  being  applied. 

Where  only  a  few  fleas  are  present  in  a  room  they  may 
be  caught  by  spreading  a  white  cloth  on  the  floor,  and  as 
they  alight  on  the  cloth,  attracted  by  the  white  color, 
they  may  be  caught  by  picking  them  up  one  by  one  on 
the  end  of  the  moistened  finger  and  destroyed. 

In  one  instance,  a  large  room  was  greatly  relieved  of 
an  infestation  of  fleas  by  having  a  man,  with  sticky  fly 
paper  tied  around  his  legs,  walk  up  and  down  the  room. 
As  the  insects  were  disturbed  by  the  walker  they  would 
jump  on  to  the  paper  and  stick  fast.  In  this  way  hundreds 
of  them  were  caught. 

It  is  said  that  a  thorough  spraying  of  a  room  with  oil 
of  pennyroyal  will  drive  the  fleas  out. 

In  work  in  the  South  the  author  has  had  many  com- 
plaints of  cases  where  the  whole  premises  were  overrun 
with  an  infestation  of  fleas.  This  will  often  happen  in  a 
warm  country  where  houses  are  set  up  on  foundations 
some  distance  from  the  ground  and  open  beneath.  Such 
conditions  give  opportunity  for  dogs  and  cats  to  range 
beneath  the  house  unmolested  and  to  become  sources 


158  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

of  wide  infestation.  Van  Dine,  entomologist  in  Hawaii, 
has  had  the  same  experience  and  his  method  of  treatment 
is  so  good  that  it  is  quoted  here. 

"  (1)  If  the  lawn  is  infested,  cut  the  grass  as  close  to 
the  ground  as  possible  and  burn  the  refuse.  Exposure 
to  the  sun  and  air  will  be  detrimental  to  the  development 
of  the  larvae.  Keep  the  lawn  well  watered. 

"  (2)  Clean  out  and  burn  all  refuse  from  beneath  the 
infested  dwelling,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  ground  as 
bare  as  possible,  and  apply  an  even  dressing  over  the  sur- 
face of  lime,  sulfur,  and  buhach  at  the  rate  of  20  pounds 
of  air-slaked  lime  to  3  pounds  of  powdered  sulphur  and 
1  pound  of  buhach,  thoroughly  mixed  and  dry.  Spray 
the  underpinnings  of  the  house  and  the  drives  and  walks 
(if  the  latter  are  sand,  gravel,  or  dirt)  with  kerosene 
emulsion  at  the  rate  of  1  part  of  stock  solution  of  the  emul- 
sion to  10  parts  of  water. 

"  (3)  If  dogs  are  owned,  provide  a  room  for  them  to 
sleep  in  and  keep  cats  out  of  the  house.  Wash  with  strong 
soapsuds  the  floors  of  the  room  where  the  dogs  are  to 
sleep,  and  sprinkle  afterwards,  when  dry,  with  a  liberal 
amount  of  buhach.  Use  a  liberal  amount  of  buhach  in 
places  where  the  dogs  have  been  in  the  habit  of  sleeping 
and  remove  and  burn  from  such  places  all  refuse,  old 
sacks,  matting,  etc.  Every  week  or  so  take  the  dogs  to 
the  room  provided  for  them  and  brush  them  thoroughly 
with  a  strong,  stiff  brush.  Afterwards  collect  the  result- 
ing hairs  and  the  bedding  and  burn  or  immerse  the  sacks 
in  hot  soapsuds  and  hang  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Then  wash 
the  room  out  as  before  and  sprinkle  with  buhach,  and  return 
the  bedding.  The  dogs  should  be  washed  regularly, 
a  little  creolin  being  added  to  the  water. 


FLEAS  159 

"  (4)  If  the  house  is  infested,  sprinkle  a  liberal  amount  of 
buhach  beneath  all  rugs  and  matting,  and  under  all 
shelving  and  cabinets.  The  following  day  take  all  rugs, 
carpets,  and  matting  out  of  doors  and  shake  thoroughly 
and  hang  in  the  sun  for  several  hours.  Wash  the  floor 
with  hot  soapsuds.  Sprinkle  buhach  beneath  the  rugs, 
carpets,  and  matting  when  returning  them  to  the 
house." 

Many  people  desire  to  keep  a  pet  dog,  and  the  following 
method  of  getting  rid  of  fleas  and  still  retaining  the  dogs 
is  given  by  Henry  Skinner  of  Philadelphia.  He  says  : 
"  In  the  latter  part  of  May  I  moved  into  a  new  house  that 
had  not  previously  been  occupied.  No  carpet  was  used 
and  being  summer  only  a  few  rugs  were  placed  on  the 
floors.  A  part  of  the  household  consisted  of  a  collie  dog 
and  three  Persian  cats.  Very  soon  the  fleas  appeared, 
the  dog  and  cat  flea,  Ctenocephalus  canis.  ...  I  tried 
mopping  the  floors  with  a  rather  strong  solution  of  creolin, 
but  it  did  little  good.  Previous  experience  with  pyre- 
thrum  (buhach)  was  not  very  satisfactory.  Knowing  the 
volatility  of  naphthaline  in  warm  weather  and  the  irritat- 
ing character  of  its  vapor  led  me  to  try  it.  I  took  one 
room  at  a  time,  scattered  on  the  floor  five  pounds  of  flake 
naphthaline  and  closed  it  for  twenty-four  hours.  On  enter- 
ing such  a  room  the  naphthaline  vapor  will  instantly 
bring  tears  to  the  eyes  and  cause  coughing  and  irritation 
of  the  air  passages.  ...  It  proved  to  be  a  perfect 
remedy  and  very  inexpensive  as  the  naphthaline  could 
be  swept  up  and  transferred  to  other  rooms.  So  far  as  I 
am  concerned  the  flea  question  is  solved  and  if  I  have 
further  trouble  I  know  the  remedy.  I  intend  to  keep 
the  dogs  and  cats." 


160  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  following  method  of  ridding  a  cat  of  fleas  as  given 
in  a  New  York  paper  is  interesting  and  may  be  of  a  good 
deal  of  value :  — 

"An  excellent  way  to  get  rid  of  fleas  is  used  by  a  lady 
in  Chicago,  who  owns  some  of  the  best  cats  in  America. 
She  has  ready  a  square  of  cotton  batting  and  a  square  of 
cotton  cloth.  Placing  the  cat  in  the  center  of  the  batting, 
which  has  been  laid  over  the  cloth,  she  rubs  strong  spirits 
of  camphor  quickly  into  the  fur  and  then  gathers  the  corners 
of  the  batting  and  cloth  tight  around  the  neck  of  the  animal. 
She  has  the  fine  comb  ready  and  a  dish  of  hot  water,  for 
the  pests,  who  detest  the  camphor,  will  run  to  the  head 
of  the  cat,  and  must  be  combed  out  and  plunged  into  the 
scalding  water.  Hundreds  of  them,  however,  will  jump 
from  the  cat  and  lodge  in  the  cotton  batting,  where  their 
scaly  feet  stick  in  the  cotton  so  that  they  cannot  get  away. 
When  the  fleas  cease  to  run  out  into  the  head  she  judges 
that  they  have  deserted  the  cat.  The  animal  is  then  let 
out  of  the  batting  bag,  and  the  latter  carefully  carried 
to  the  kitchen  and  deposited  in  the  stove.  The  scent  of 
the  camphor  clings  to  the  cat  for  some  time  and  acts  as 
a  preventive.  A  whole  cattery  may  be  cleaned  out  in 
this  way." 

L.  O.  Howard  gives  the  substance  of  a  letter  from  Miss 
Adele  M.  Fielde  on  a  method  of  getting  rid  of  flees  as 
follows :  She  states  that  during  a  long  residence  in 
Southern  China,  where  fleas  swarm,  even  in  clean  houses, 
she  made  her  own  house  immune  through  many  years  by 
dissolving  alum  in  the  whitewash  or  calcimine  that 
covered  the  interior  walls,  putting  sheets  of  thick  paper 
that  had  been  dipped  in  a  solution  of  alum  under  the  mat- 
ting and  scattering  pulverized  alum  in  all  crevices  where 


FLEAS  161 

insects  might  lodge  or  breed.  Powdered  alum,  she  states, 
may  be  sprinkled  upon  carpets  already  laid  and  then 
brushed  or  swept  into  their  meshes  with  no  injury  to  the 
carpets  and  with  the  certainty  of  banishment  to  many 
insect  pests,  including  both  fleas  and  moths. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  FLEAS 

1872.     LABOULBENE.  —  Metamorphoses   de   la   puce   du    chat.  — 

Annales  de  la  Societe  Entomologique  de  France,  1872,  pp.  267- 

273. 
1880.     TASCHENBERG,  E.  L.  —  Praktische  Insekten-kunde,  Vol.  V, 

p.  131. 
1888.     GRASSI  and  CALAXDRUCCIO.  —  Centrallblatt  fur  Bacteriolo- 

gie  und  Parasitkunde,  III,  p.  174. 
1888.     SIMMONS,    W.    J.  —  The   metamorphoses   of   the   dog-flea. 

American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal  for  Dec.,  1888,  pp. 

227-230. 

1895.  GAGE,  S.  H.  —  Catching  fleas  with  sticky  flypaper.     Insect 
Life.     Vol.  7,  p.  422. 

1896.  LUGGER,  OTTO.  —  Insects  injurious  in  1896.    Bull.  48,  Minn. 
Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  158-161. 

1896.    BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Household  insects,  pp.  248-272. 

1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp. 

24-31. 
1896.     Mosquitos  and  fleas.     Circ.  13,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agri. 
1896.    OSBORNE,  HERBERT.  —  Insects  affecting  domestic  animals. 

Bull.  5,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  141. 
1899.    NUTTALL,  GEO.  H.  F.  —  On  the  r61e  of  insects,  arachnids, 

and    myriapods,    as    carriers,    etc.     Johns  Hopkins    Hospital 

Reports,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  14,  17,  49,  119,  and  133. 

1899.  SHARP,  DAVID.  —  Cambridge  natural  history,  Vol.  VI,  p. 
522. 

1900.  NILES,  E.  P.  —  Animal  parasites.     Bull.  112,  Virginia  Expt. 
Stat. 


162  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

1901.  HOWARD,  L.  O.— To  rid  cats  of  fleas.     Bull.  30,  n.s.,  Bu. 
Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  94. 

1902.  CONRADI,  ALBERT  F.  —  Remedies  for  fleas.     Bull.  94,  N.  H. 
Expt.  Stat. 

1903.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  —  Remedies  for   fleas.     Farmers'    Bull. 
169,  pp.  30-32. 

1905.  THEOBALD,  F.  V.  —  Flies  and  ticks  as  agents  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  disease.  The  Proc.  of  the  Assoc.  of  EC.  Biol.,  Vol.  I, 
Pt.  I. 

1905.  ALBERT,    HENRY.  —  Insects ;   the    role    they    play    in    the 
transmission    of   disease.     New    York    Medical    Journal,    and 
Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  Feb.,  1905. 

1906.  JOURNAL  OF  HYGIENE.  —  See  volumes  6,  7,  and  8,  for  experi- 
mental evidence  regarding  different  species  of  fleas  as  agents  in 
the  transmission  of  the  plague. 

1907.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Two  new  remedies  for  fleas.     Science, 
Vol.  XXVI,  Nov.  29,  1907. 

1907.  BAKER,  C.  F.  —  Some  notes  on  leprosy  in  Havana.  Bull.  67, 
Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  118-119. 

1907.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual  for   the  study  of  insects,  pp. 
490-493. 

1908.  Verjbitski,   D.  T.  —  The   part  played   by   insects   in    the 
epidemiology  of  plague.     Journal  of  Hygiene,  Vol.  8,  No.  2, 
pp.  162-208. 

1908.     VAN  DINE,  D.  L.  —  Remedies  for  fleas.     Annual  Report  of 

the  Hawaii  Station  for  1907,  pp.  35-37. 
1908.     HERRICK.   G.  W.  —  Notes  on   the   hen    flea    (Xestopsylla 

gallinacea).     Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  1,  No.  6,  p.  355. 
1908.     DOANE,  R.  W.  —  Notes  on  fleas  collected  on  rat  and  human 

hosts  in  San  Francisco  and  elsewhere.     Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  40,  pp. 

303-304. 
1908.     MITZMAIN,   M.   B.  —  Insect  transmission   of   the   bubonic 

plague.    Ent.  News.,  Vol.  19,  pp.  353-359. 
1908.     How  a  hungry  flea  feeds.     Ent.  News,  Vol.  19,  p.  462. 

1908.  WHERRY,  WM.  B.  —  Fleas  on  rodents  and  men  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.     Jr.  of  the  Amer.  Med.  Assoc.,  Vol.  51,  No.  6,  p.  495. 

1909.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Control  of  household  insects.     N.  Y.  State 
Mus.  Bull.  129,  p.  19. 


FLEAS  163 

1909.     McCov,    G.    W.  —  Siphonaptera   observed    in   the   plague 

campaign  in  California,  etc.     Public  Health  Reports,  Vol.  24, 

No.  29,  pp.  1013-1020. 
1909.    Fox,  CARROLL.  —  The  flea  in  its  relation  to  plague  with  a 

symposium  of  the  rat  fleas.     The  Military  Surgeon,  24,  June, 

1909,  pp.  528-537. 
1909.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  House  fleas.    Circ.  108,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agri. 

1909.  SKINNER,  HENRY.  —  A  remedy  for  house  fleas.     Jr.  EC.  Ent., 
Vol.  2,  No.  3,  p.  192. 

1910.  MITZMAIN,  M.  B.  —  General  observations  of  the  bionomics 
of  the  rodent  and  human  fleas.     Public  Health  Bulletin  38. 

1910.     DOANE,  R.  W.  —  Insects  and  disease,  pp.  142-160. 

Much  literature  regarding  fleas  and  the  plague  may  be  found  in  the 
Journal  of  Hygiene  and  in  the  reports  of  the  different  plague  com- 
missions. Also  see  Doane's  Insects  and  disease,  pp.  194-199. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ANTS,    THEIR   ACTIVITIES   AND   INVASIONS   OF 
THE   HOUSEHOLD 

THE  ants  belong  to  the  same  great  group  of  insects, 
Hymenoptera,  that  contains  the  wasps,  bees,  sawflies,  and 
others ;  and,  like  the  honey  bee  and  common  wasps,  are 
social  in  their  habits  of  living. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  ants ;  they  occur  in  all  lands 
and  all  regions,  from  the  dry  deserts  to  the  damp  forests, 
from  the  timberline  of  mountains  to  the  lowest  valleys, 
and  among  the  dwellings  and  habitations  of  man.  They 
seem  to  thrive  in  all  kinds  of  environment  and  multiply 
enormously,  so  that  they  outnumber  all  other  terrestrial 
animals. 

THE  NATURE  OF  AN  ANT  COLONY 

As  we  have  said,  ants  are  social,  that  is,  they  live  in 
colonies  or  communities  where  every  individual  ant  works 
for  the  good  of  the  whole  and  not  for  itself  alone.  A 
colony  of  ants  furnishes  an  illustration  of  a  more  perfect 
communistic  society  than  any  ever  established  by  man  and 
perhaps  a  more  amicable  one  than  any  he  will  ever  be 
able  to  organize. 

In  a  typical  colony  of  ants  there  are  at  least  three  kinds 
of  individuals,  the  queen,  the  males,  and  the  workers. 
The  queen  is  not  the  ruler,  but  the  mother  of  the  colony. 
Her  only  business  seems  to  be  to  lay  eggs  which  hatch 
into  workers  and  other  forms  to  take  the  places  of  those 
164 


ANTS  165 

that  disappear  or  die,  thus  maintaining  the  full  and  con- 
tinuous strength  of  the  community.  When  the  queen 
comes  forth  from  the  pupal  stage  she  has  wings  which 
she  retains  until  after  the  swarming  period.  After  the 
swarming  flight  is  over  and  the  queen  alights,  her  wings 
fall  off  or  are  torn  off  by  herself  or  workers  and  from  that 
time  she  remains  wingless.  In  some  species  of  ants  there 
may  be  modified  forms  of  the  queen ;  for  example,  giant 
queens,  dwarf  queens,  worker-like  queens,  and  other  forms. 

The  males,  which  have  wings,  exist  only  to  mate  with 
the  queens,  and  after  the  swarming  period  is  over  they 
eventually  die.  The  males  are  also  often  modified  into 
giant  males,  dwarf  males,  worker-like  males,  and  other 
forms. 

The  workers,  which  are  undeveloped  females,  are 
wingless  and  constitute  the  great  majority  of  individuals 
that  we  see  running  about  in  the  vicinity  of  an  ant  nest. 
The  workers  are  just  what  their  title  implies.  They  do 
the  work  of  the  community,  build  the  nest,  keep  it  clean, 
care  for  and  procure  food  for  the  queen  and  larvae,  care 
for  the  eggs,  fight  the  battles,  and  perform  other  functions. 
The  workers  may  exist  under  several  different  forms.  One 
especially  interesting  form  has  a  very  large  head  and 
strong  jaws,  thus  fitting  it  for  war-like  functions.  Work- 
ers thus  modified  are  known  as  the  soldiers. 


THE  STRUCTURE   OP  ANTS 

Like  other  insects,  the  body  of  an  ant  is  composed  of 
three  chief  divisions,  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  The 
abdomen  of  all  of  our  common  ants,  at  least,  consists  of  two 
rather  distinct  parts ;  a  slender  anterior  portion  consisting 


166  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

of  one  or  two  segments  that  constitutes  the  pedicel  or 
peduncle  and  a  more  robust  posterior  portion  composed 
of  several  segments,  called  the  gaster.  Moreover,  each 
segment  of  the  pedicel  is  expanded  on  the  top  side  and 
forms  a  lens  or  button-shaped  knob,  a  character  that 
distinguishes  ants  from  all  other  insects. 

The  mouth  of  an  ant  is  furnished  with  two  pairs  of 
jaws,  one  pair  of  which,  the  mandibles,  are  very  large  and 
strong.  It  is  with  these  that  the  ants  mine  in  the  earth, 
wood,  or  living  plant  tissues,  fight  their  battles,  carry 
their  eggs  and  young,  cut  leaves,  obtain  food,  and  do 
many  other  things.  On  the  head  are  also  borne  the  two 
antennae,  which  are  very  important  organs  to  the  ant.  The 
sense  of  touch  is  highly  developed  in  the  antennae.  Ants 
have  one  pair  of  compound  eyes  and  three  simple  eyes. 

The  posterior  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the  queen  and  the 
workers  of  many  of  our  ants  bears  a  sting,  which,  in  some 
species,  is  a  very  effective  weapon  of  defense. 

THE   NESTS  AND   ACTIVITIES   OF  ANTS 

The  nests  of  ants,  in  a  general  way,  consist  merely  of 
a  system  of  passageways  or  cavities  communicating  with 
each  other  and  connected  to  the  outside  world  with  one 
or  more  openings.  There  are  some  species  of  ants  that 
live  below  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  have  no  openings 
from  their  nests  into  the  air  except  at  the  swarming  period. 
The  style  of  construction  and  the  materials  used  by  ants 
in  making  their  nests  vary  with  the  different  species  and 
with  the  environment  in  which  the  ants  live.  Moreover, 
the  nests  are  very  irregular,  especially  when  compared  with 
those  of  wasps  and  bees. 


ANTS 


167 


The  passageways  of  the  nests  are  enlarged  here  and  there 
into  comparatively  large  cavities,  or  chambers  (Fig.  47). 
It  is  in  these  different  chambers  that  the  activities  of  the 


FIQ.  47.  —  Interior  of  an  ant's  nest. 

colony  are  carried  on.  The  queen  lies  deep  within  the 
interior  of  the  nest  in  a  dry,  dark  chamber.  Here  she  is 
carefully  tended  and  fed  by  the  workers,  who  bear  the  eggs 


168  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

as  they  are  laid  to  other  chambers  and  zealously  care 
for  them.  Many  insects  never  see  their  young;  others 
may  see  them,  but  do  not  care  for  them ;  others,  like  the 
bees  and  wasps,  put  food  into  the  gaping  mouths  of  their 
young,  but  have  no  further  association  with  them.  The 
ants,  however,  stand  alone  among  insects  in  their  very 
intimate  relations  with  their  progeny  from  the  egg  to 
the  adult.  Some  of  the  chambers  in  the  nest  are  reserved 
for  the  eggs,  some  for  the  larvae,  and  some  for  the  pupae. 
If,  as  often  happens,  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  are  all  in 
one  chamber,  then  they  are  each  grouped  by  themselves 
in  separate  piles,  reminding  one,  as  Lubbock  says,  "of 
a  school  divided  into  five  or  six  classes."  In  the  simpler 
and  more  primitive  ants  this  grouping  and  separation  may 
not  be  so  distinct.  The  ants  are  constantly  transferring 
their  young  from  one  part  of  the  nest  to  another  in  search 
of  the  right  degree  of  moisture  and  temperature.  In  the 
warm  part  of  the  day  the  young  will  be  transferred  to 
near  the  surface,  but  at  night  will  be  carried  down  again 
away  from  the  cool  air.  The  ants  are  constantly  cleaning 
the  young,  caring  for  the  eggs  to  prevent  mold  from  grow- 
ing on  them,  helping  the  callow  ants  to  emerge  from  their 
cocoons,  bringing  food,  cleaning,  enlarging,  and  recon- 
structing the  nest,  and  doing  thousands  of  things  con- 
tributing to  the  comfort,  growth,  and  happiness  of  the 
community. 


RELATION   OF  ANTS  TO   OTHER  INSECTS   AND   PLANTS 

It  has  been  argued,  and  many  observations  have  been 
offered  to  show  that  there  is  a  most  intimate  relation 
between  ants  and  many  kinds  of  plants.  Certain  authors 


ANTS  169 

claim  that  many  plants  not  only  offer  special  inducements 
to  attract  ants  to  them  by  affording  favorable  nesting 
places,  but  also  offer  the  ants  delectable  food  in  the  way 
of  a  sweet  liquid,  the  floral  and  extrafloral  nectar.  In 
return  for  the  domiciles  and  the  food,  the  ants  are  sup- 
posed to  protect  their  plant  hosts  from  certain  insect  and 
other  animal  enemies.  In  other  words,  the  relationship 
is  one  of  mutual  benefit  or  a  symbiotic  one.  It  is  cer- 
tainly true  that  many  species  of  ants  make  their  homes 
in  the  hollow  stems  of  plants,  in  the  thorns  of  acacias 
which  the  ants  easily  hollow  out,  in  cavities  in  bulbs, 
leaves,  and  in  the  dried  seed-pods  of  plants.  It  is  also 
true  that  ants  assiduously  collect  and  carry  to  their  nests 
the  sweet  nectar  excreted  by  many  plants.  It  is  not  so 
clear,  however,  that  these  favorable  nesting  places  and 
the  nectar  are  provided  by  the  plants  on  purpose  to  attract 
the  ants,  nor  is  it  clear  that  the  ants  afford  the  plants 
protection  from  the  animal  enemies.  In  other  words, 
more  definite  proof  is  needed  to  show  that  the  relations 
between  ants  and  plants  is  a  purposely  mutual  one. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  relation  of  ants  to  plant-lice, 
tree-hoppers,  and  certain  scale  insects  is  clearly,  in  many 
cases,  a  mutually  helpful  one.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
the  relations  between  ants  and  plant-lice.  The  aphids 
secrete  a  sweet  liquid  known  as  honey-dew,  of  which 
the  ants  are  very  fond  and  which  they  are  active  in 
collecting  and  carrying  to  their  nests.  It  can  hardly  be 
supposed  that  the  aphids  excrete  the  honey-dew  solely 
for  the  ants.  The  liquid  is  an  excretion  from  the  ali- 
mentary canal  and  is  exuded  whether  ants  are  in  attend- 
ance or  not.  On  the  other  hand,  ants  are  very  solicitous 
in  their  care  of  aphids  in  return  for  the  honey-dew.  The 


170  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

ants  sometimes  build  "sheds"  over  the  lice  for  their 
protection  and  sometimes  take  the  lice  into  their  own 
nests  to  care  for  them.  In  the  case  of  the  corn-root  louse 
the  ants  collect  the  eggs  of  the  aphid  in  the  fall,  carry 
them  into  their  own  nests,  and  care  for  them  all  winter. 
In  the  spring,  the  newly-hatched  aphids  are  carried  out 
by  the  ants  and  placed  in  burrows  dug  beforehand  among 
the  roots  of  certain  early  food-plants.  Later,  the  ants 
excavate  burrows  along  the  roots  of  the  corn  and  transfer 
the  aphids  to  these  plants. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  the  ants  collecting  the  honey- 
dew  from  the  aphids.  An  ant  approaches  a  louse  and 
gently  stroking  the  latter  with  its  antennae,  the  aphid 
exudes  a  drop  of  the  sweet  material  which  is  quickly 
gathered  up  by  the  ant.  This  action  may  be  repeated  with 
three  or  four  of  the  aphids  until  the  ant  has  all  it  desires, 
when  it  hurries  down  the  stem  of  the  plant  and  away  to 
its  nest  with  its  load  of  sweet  provender. 

THE   LIFE   HISTORY   OF   ANTS 

Enough  observations  have  now  been  made  to  enable 
us  to  say  that  most,  if  not  all,  colonies  of  ants  are  started 
by  a  solitary  queen  or  occasionally  by  two  queens  working 
together.  The  queen,  after  the  swarming  period,  alights, 
tears  off  her  wings,  and  digs  a  burrow  in  the  soil  or  in 
decayed  wood,  forms  a  small  chamber,  and  then  closes 
the  opening.  Here  she  remains  until  her  eggs  are  laid, 
and  have  hatched  into  small  larvae  that  finally  mature 
into  normal  but  diminutive  workers.  All  this  time  the 
queen  has  taken  no  food,  but  has  lived  and  fed  her  brood 
on  the  reserve  material  in  her  bodv.  The  small  workers 


ANTS  171 

now  begin  to  enlarge  the  nest  and  soon  other  larger  workers 
are  reared  and  the  community  begins  to  multiply  and 
increase. 

The  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  are  small  and  white  and  rarely 
seen  by  the  ordinary  observer.  These  are  solicitously 
cared  for  by  workers  and  finally  hatch  into  white,  footless, 
soft,  grub-like  larvae.  The  larvae  are  also  tenderly  cared 
for  by  the  workers  and  changed  from  chamber  to  chamber 
in  conformity  with  variations  in  temperature  and  moisture. 
The  workers  feed  the  larvae  either  on  food  which  has 
been  predigested  and  which  the  workers. now  regurgitate 
or  on  bits  of  dead  insects,  leaves,  or  seeds  that  have  been 
chewed  fine.  The  larvae,  after  attaining  their  growth, 
change  to  whitish  pupae  which,  in  some  species,  are  in- 
closed in  cocoons,  while  in  others  they  are  not.  These 
the  workers  treat  with  the  same  solicitude  and  care  that 
they  show  toward  their  larvae.  Observers  often  mistake 
the  pupae  for  eggs.  Often,  on  raising  up  a  flat  stone  one 
will  see  the  workers  running  this  way  and  that  with  the 
larvae  and  pupae  in  their  jaws,  evidently  seeking  a  place  of 
safety  for  them.  The  pupae  finally  transform  to  the  adult 
ants  of  the  various  forms,  workers,  queens,  and  males. 

ECONOMIC   IMPORTANCE  OF  ANTS 

Ants,  as  a  whole,  may  probably  be  considered  as  agents 
in  making  the  earth  more  habitable  for  man.  Some  of 
the  species  are  neutral,  perhaps,  in  relation  to  the  economic 
status  of  mankind.  A  great  many  species  are  certainly 
beneficial  through  their  action  in  stirring  and  aerating 
the  soil.  They  are  constantly  burrowing  deep  into  the 
earth  and  bringing  up  the  particles  which  they  distribute 


172  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

over  the  surface.  Their  action  in  this  respect  is  similar 
to  that  of  earthworms,  the  value  of  which  was  revealed 
to  us  by  the  classic  investigations  of  Darwin.  Ants  are 
also  important  agents  in  aiding  in  the  decomposition  of 
organic  substances.  Their  work  in  this  respect  is  little 
appreciated  or  realized  because  it  is  invisible.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  this  work  of  ants  is  gradual, 
incessant,  and  extends  through  tremendously  long  periods 
of  time. 

Again,  ants  are  great  insect  destroyers.  Their  food 
consists,  in  great  part,  of  the  juices  and  tissues  of  dead 
insects  or  of  insects  that  they  kill.  The  interesting  driver 
ants  of  the  Old  World  and  the  legionary  ants  of  tropical 
Africa  pass  through  a  territory  killing  and  devouring 
multitudes  of  living  insects,  rats  and  mice.  Hunter 
and  Hinds  tell  us  that  there  are  12  species  of  ants  known 
to  attack  the  immature  stages  of  the  Mexican  cotton  boll 
weevil.  "In  some  cases  more  than  half  of  the  immature 
stages  in  fields  have  been  found  to  be  destroyed  by  ants 
alone.  To  find  25  per  cent  so  destroyed  is  not  a  rare 
occurrence." 

On  the  other  hand,  certain  household  species  of  ants 
are  very  annoying  and  troublesome.  Moreover,  the  leaf- 
cutting  ants  of  tropical  America  are  very  injurious  to 
plants.  They  will  strip  a  fruit  tree  of  its  foliage  in  a  very 
short  time.  One  species  of  these  leaf-cutting  forms 
(Atta  texana)  found  in  Texas  attacks  cotton,  corn,  fruit- 
trees,  sorghum,  and  other  plants,  and  has  become  of  con- 
siderable economic  importance.  In  some  places  land  is 
not  planted  on  account  of  fear  of  attack  by  these  ants. 

The  mound-building  prairie  ant  (Pogonomyrmex  occi- 
dentalis),  distributed  over  a  large  part  of  the  western 


ANTS  173 

plains  of  the  United  States,  has  become  a  distinct  pest 
since  man  has  begun  to  occupy  the  prairies.  Their  large 
mound-nests  in  fields  of  alfalfa  or  grain  become  serious 
obstacles  to  harvesting  the  crops.  Moreover,  when  the 
nests  are  disturbed  the  ants  emerge  in  large  numbers  and 
attack  man  and  beast,  inflicting  painful  wounds  with 
their  stings.  In  dooryards  and  lawns  and  along  paths 
they  are  liable  to  attack  the  passer-by,  especially  dawdling 
children. 

The  agricultural  ant  (Pogonomyrmex  barbatus  mole- 
faciens)  of  Texas  may  build  its  mound-nests  in  fields 
of  alfalfa,  corn,  or  cotton,  and  since  it  allows  no  vegetation 
to  grow  over  a  considerable  area  around  the  nest,  the  in- 
jury may  be  quite  serious.  Moreover,  they  are  pugna- 
cious and  sting  intruders  severely. 

Perhaps  the  most  injurious  role  assumed  by  ants  is 
their  protection  and  fostering  of  plant-lice,  scale  insects, 
and  tree-hoppers.  Aphids  and  scale  insects  are  among 
our  most  injurious  insect  pests  and  anything  that  pro- 
tects them  or  aids  them  in  increasing  may  be  considered 
an  enemy  to  man. 

As  a  pest,  the  Argentine  ant  (Iridomyrmex  humilis) 
stands  by  itself.  Newell  says,  "As  a  household  pest  I 
venture  the  opinion  that  this  ant  has  no  equal  in  the  United 
States." 

KINDS   OF   ANTS   TROUBLESOME   IN   DWELLINGS 

There  are  several  species  of  ants  that  may  become  annoy- 
ing in  dwelling-houses  in  temperate  regions,  but  perhaps 
the  best-known  species  are  the  tiny  red  ant  (Monomor- 
ium  pharaonis)  and  the  small  black  ant  (Monomoriwn 


174  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

minimum).  Occasionally  the  large  carpenter  ant  (Cam- 
ponotus  pennsyhanicus)  forages  in  houses,  and  the  pave- 
ment ant  (Tetramorium  cespitum)  becomes  a  trouble- 
some intruder  in  cities  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The 
Argentine  ant  (Iridomyrmex  humilis)  wherever  it  occurs 
in  the  United  States  is  probably  the  worst  household  pest 
of  all.  The  little  fiery  ant  (Solenopsis  molesta)  is  also 
said  to  invade  kitchens  occasionally. 

The  red  ant. — This  ant  (Monomorium  pharaonis], 
which  is  really  light  yellow  in  color,  is  only  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  48) 
and,  at  times,  literally  swarms  in 
houses,  and  because  of  its  small 
size  it  gets  into  everything  that  is 
not  almost  hermetically  sealed. 
Hardly  any  household  food  prod- 
ucts come  amiss  to  the  red  ants. 
They  are  especially  fond  of  sugar, 
sirups,  fruit  juices,  jellies,  cakes, 
fruit  pies,  and  the  like.  Whenever 

FIG.  48.  —  The  red  ant.  ,  n     , 

(X  20.)  one   of   the   tiny  workers   finds   a 

pleasing  morsel  or  supply  of  food  it 

immediately  informs  the  rest  of  the  community  and  they 
all  come  quickly  trooping  to  the  source  of  supply.  After 
the  colony  has  found  out  the  existence  of  a  desired  bit 
of  food,  they  swarm  over  and  through  it  in  such  numbers 
that  it  seems  almost  a  hopeless  task  to  get  rid  of  them. 
The  discouraging  part  of  the  problem  is  that  no  matter 
how  many  we  may  kill  an  equal  number  seems  to  come  to 
take  the  places  of  those  destroyed  and  so  long  as  the  queens 
are  allowed  to  live  on  undisturbed  the  workers  may  con- 
tinue to  come.  The  French  observer  Bellevoye  tells 


ANTS  175 

us  that  he  gathered  349,500  workers  in  his  rooms  in  six 
weeks  besides  a  great  many  that  he  killed  or  threw  into 
the  fire  without  estimating  their  numbers.  All  of  the 
workers  evidently  came  from  one  nest  located  somewhere 
in  the  walls  of  the  house. 

There  are  a  few  redeeming  features  about  the  red  ant 
that  are  worthy  of  note.  Pergande,  a  careful  entomologist 
and  close  observer,  says  that  he  saw  an  old  building  at 
Meridian,  Mississippi,  used  as  a  barracks  during  the  war, 
filled  with  bedbugs,  but  invaded  by  myriads  of  red  ants. 
He  said  that  several  ants  would  attack  a  bedbug,  pull 
off  its  legs,  and  carry  the  helpless  body  away.  Every 
crack  and  crevice  of  the  rough  beds  were  sought  out  by 
the  ants  and  the  young  and  old  bedbugs  dragged  forth 
and  killed. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Florida  Farmer  and  Fruit 
Grower  says  that  this  habit  of  destroying  bedbugs  is 
well  known  and  advises  the  introduction  of  red  ants  into 
houses  for  the  purpose  of  exterminating  these  pests.  If 
the  ants  would  leave  when  the  bugs  were  killed,  all  would 
be  well ;  but  if  they  should  happen  to  remain  as  permanent 
inhabitants  of  the  dwelling,  it  would  be  a  question  whether 
any  gain  had  been  made. 

Another  interesting  role  played  by  red  ants  is  that  of 
destroying  the  white  grubs  in  soil,  as  related  by  G.  H. 
Perkins,  another  observant  entomologist.  He  says,  "  that 
a  box  in  which  a  number  of  the  larvae  were  living  having 
been  discovered  by  the  ants  they  at  once  took  possession 
and  promptly  destroyed  every  one  of  them,  and  this  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  perhaps  we  are  more  deeply  in- 
debted than  we  have  been  aware  to  ants  for  destroying 
those  larvae  which  inhabit  the  ground." 


176  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  nests  of  the  red  ant  may  be  formed  in  the  walls 
of  a  house,  under  the  floors,  among  trash  in  old  trunks  or 
boxes,  or  in  the  lawn  or  garden  just  outside  the  door. 

The  small  black  ant.  — This  ant  (Monomorium  minimum) 
is  smaller,  if  anything,  than  the  red  ant,  although  there 
is  little  visible  difference  between  them  in  size  (Fig.  49). 
They  differ  decidedly  in  appearance,  for  this  one  is  dark 
in  color  and  easily  distinguished  from  the  red  one.  The 
nests  of  the  little  black  ant  are  sometimes  under  stones 
in  the  yard,  but  are  more  often  in  the  open.  The  nests 
have  small  craters  about  the  entrances 
made  of  fine  grains  of  soil.  When  the 
nests  are  opened  there  will  usually  be 
found,  among  the  workers,  one  or  more 
large  females. 

The  black  ant  is  not  strictly  a  house 
ant,  at  least  not  as  much  so  as  the  red 
ant,  yet  it  often  invades  dwellings  in 
FIG  49  —The  small  considerable    numbers    and    becomes 
black  ant.    (x  u.)     somewhat  of  a  nuisance.     The  inva- 
sions   are    due    to    the    workers   who 
wander  some  distance  from  their  nests  on  foraging  ex- 
peditions. 

The  pavement  ant.  —  The  pavement  ant  (Tetramorium 
cespitum)  is  an  introduced  form.  It  seems  to  be  widely 
distributed  in  Europe  and  constitutes  one  of  the  common 
meadow  ants  in  that  country.  When  introduced  in 
this  country  it  took  up  its  abode  in  some  of  our  Eastern 
cities  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore.  Here  it  established  itself  by 
building  its  nests  beneath  the  pavement  or  under  flagging 
stones  in  the  yards  of  dwellings.  From  these  situations 


ANTS  177 

of  vantage  and  nearness  to  dwellings,  the  pavement  ant 
has  acquired  the  habit  of  entering  houses  and  becomes 
quite  as  much  of  a  pest,  in  some  instances,  as  the  red  ant. 

Marlatt  thinks  the  pavement  ant  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  many  years  ago  and  believes  that  it  is 
the  species  referred  to  by  Kalm  in  1748  as  often  occurring 
in  houses  in  Philadelphia  at  that  early  date.  On  the  other 
hand,  Wheeler  points  out  some  reasons  for  thinking  this 
ant  came  into  this  country  much  more  recently.  The  pave- 
ment ant  is  interesting  in  having  several  species  of  parasitic 
or  slave-making  ants  associated  with  it  and  occurring  in 
its  nests  in  Europe.  Evidently  none  of  these  parasitic 
species  were  introduced  with  their  host  into  America. 

Marlatt  says  the  colonies  of  the  pavement  ant  are  often 
very  large,  for  they  may  frequently  be  found  in  masses 
of  a  quart  or  more  on  turning  over  stones  in  yards  or  on 
lifting  the  flagging  in  paths. 

The  large  black  carpenter  ant.  —  The  large  black 
carpenter  ant  (Camponotus  pennsylvanicus)  often  becomes 
an  annoying  pest  in  dwelling-houses.  It  is  one  of  those 
ants  that  have  the  habit  of  leaving  their  natural  haunts  at 
times  and  taking  up  their  abode  in  dwelling-houses.  This 
habit  has  evidently  been  assumed  since  the  settlement  of 
America  and  the  erection  of  buildings  here.  The  natural 
haunts  of  the  black  carpenter  ant  (Fig.  50)  are  in  decaying 
stumps,  fence  posts,  logs,  and  other  pieces  of  wood.  We 
have  known  them,  however,  to  make  their  home  in  the  de- 
caying sill  of  a  porch  from  which  vantage  ground  they  be- 
came a  decided  nuisance  in  the  kitchen  not  far  distant. 
Moreover,  they  occasionally  do  serious  damage  to  rafters 
and  beams  in  buildings. 

Several  observers  have  shown  that  the  queen  of  this 


178  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

species  founds  a  nest  by  herself.     She  selects  a  favorable 
place  beneath  the  bark  of  an  old  log,  for  example,    and 
there  excavates  a  small  cell.     In  this  she  may  be  found 
brooding  over  a  few  eggs,  larvae, 
cocoons,  and  small  workers.    Pricer 
has    also    determined     that    the 
number  of  inhabitants  of  a  fully 
developed  nest  of  the  black  car- 
penter ant  may  contain  from  1943 
to  2500  workers. 

There  are  other  species  of  ants 
that  occasionally  become  house- 
hold pests.  The  tiny  thief-ant 
(Solenopsis  molesta)  is  a  native 
ant  that  occasionally  leaves  its 
natural  haunts  and  builds  its  nest 
in  houses,  where  the  occupants 
become  pests  in  kitchens  and 

so.-The  large  black  Pantries'     The  workers  of  this  ant 
carpenter  ant,  enlarged,     are   very   small    and    yellow   and 

nearly  blind. 

Finally,  there  is  the  Argentine  ant  that  stands  in  a  class 
by  itself  and  is  discussed  later. 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  FIGHTING  ANTS 

Perhaps  the  first  thing  to  do  as  a  method  of  prevention 
is  to  remove  the  substance  attracting  them  if  this  can  be 
done.  It  can  often  be  placed  on  a  support,  the  legs  of 
which  rest  in  water  covered  with  a  film  of  oil.  Some- 
times the  simple  removal  of  the  attractive  food  to  another 
room  may  be  sufficient. 


ANTS  179 

Another  temporary  expedient  and  one  which  may  dis- 
courage the  ants  enough  to  finally  stop  them  from  coming 
is  to  soak  small  sponges  in  sweetened  water  and  place 
them  where  the  insects  are  most  numerous.  The  ants 
will  crawl  into  the  pores  of  the  sponges  in  great  numbers 
and  may  be  killed  by  dropping  the  sponge  and  all  into 
boiling  water.  This  process  may  be  repeated  over  and 
over  and  thousands  of  the  workers  destroyed.  In  cases 
in  which  this  has  been  given  a  thorough  and  persistent 
trial,  the  ants  have  become  so  discouraged  and  bewildered 
by  the  sudden  loss  of  so  many  workers  that  they  have 
finally  abandoned  the  house  entirely. 

A  sirup  made  by  dissolving  sugar  and  borax  in  boiling 
water  will  attract  and  kill  many  of  the  ants.  It  is  said 
also  that  camphor,  either  free  or  wrapped  loosely  in 
paper,  and  placed  around  the  foods  attracting  them  will 
drive  the  ants  away. 

Often  the  ants  may  be  traced,  if  carefully  watched,  and 
the  crack  or  opening  through  which  they  enter  discovered. 
When  found,  kerosene  oil  should  be  squirted  into  it  or  it 
should  be  tightly  plugged  with  cotton  soaked  in  kerosene. 
This  is  often  an  effective  preventive. 

Ordinary  ants  may  be  prevented  from  reaching  tables 
by  setting  the  legs  in  cups  containing  a  little  water  with 
kerosene  oil  on  the  surface.  This  method  does  not  seem 
to  avail  much  with  the  Argentine  ant.  At  least,  these 
ants  soon  manage  to  cross  the  oil  often  on  a  causeway 
formed  from  the  dead  bodies  of  their  sacrificed  comrades. 
But  against  the  red  ant  and  the  little  black  ant  the  film 
of  oil  is  an  effective  barrier  until  it  evaporates,  when  it 
must  be  renewed. 

Cyanide  of  potassium  has  been  used  with  marked  effect 


180  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

against  ants  in  the  field.  It  is  a  deadly  poison  and  should 
be  handled  with  great  care.  If  it  is  powdered  fine  and 
scattered  over  an  ant  hill,  after  the  latter  has  been  broken 
up  or  stirred  on  the  surface,  the  ants  will  immediately 
begin  to  remove  the  pieces.  In  doing  so,  every  one  of 
them  that  touches  the  cyanide  will  be  killed.  Colonies 
have  been  almost  exterminated  in  this  way  and  whenever 
the  colonies  of  the  red  ant  can  be  located  the  cyanide  may 
be  used  to  advantage.  It  will  be  found  more  useful 
against  the  normally  out-door  species,  such  as  the  pave- 
ment ant,  carpenter  ant,  and  others. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  if  fowls  are  allowed  access 
to  the  poison  and  pick  up  the  pieces,  they  will  certainly 
be  poisoned.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  it  is  best  to  use 
the  cyanide  in  solution  by  dissolving  it  in  water  at  the 
rate  of  one-half  an  ounce  or  an  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water. 
It  may  then  be  sprayed  over  the  nest  or  poured  down  the 
openings.  This  method  seems  to  be  quite  as  effective 
as  scattering  it  in  the  powdered  form.  At  least,  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  colonies  of  some  species  of  ants 
may  be  nearly  if  not  quite  exterminated  in  this  way. 
Another  very  effective  method  of  application  consists  in 
placing  a  pint  or  more  of  the  solution  in  hollows  dug  out 
at  the  exits  of  the  burrows  of  the  colony. 

Ordinary  cotton  tape  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate 
acts  as  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  red  ant  and  other  species. 
The  tape  is  often  wound  about  the  legs  of  tables,  tacked 
along  the  edges  of  shelves,  and  in  other  places  to  protect 
food.  The  ants  will  not  cross  these  strips  of  tape.  The 
prepared  tape  may  be  purchased  in  the  larger  cities  of 
the  South,  but  the  author  has  never  seen  it  for  sale 
in  cities  in  the  North.  But  since  one  often  gets  an 


ANTS  181 

inferior  article  from  the  store  it  is  best  to  prepare  it  at 
home. 

Newell  makes  a  solution  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  by 
heating  it  in  water  in  a  granite  ware  vessel  and  dissolving 
all  that  the  water  will  take  up.  After  this  solution  has 
cooled  it  is  filtered.  The  solution  may  be  filtered,  in  the 
absence  of  filter  paper,  through  a  fine  clean  quality  of 
cotton  batting.  Simply  place  a  thick  layer  of  the  cotton 
in  a  funnel  and  pour  the  solution  in,  giving  it  time  to  filter 
through.  The  tape  is  then  soaked  in  this  filtered  solution 
and  pinned  up  on  the  wall  to  dry.  Neither  the  solution 
nor  the  tape  should  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with 
iron,  tin,  or  steel.  When  the  tape  is  well  made  it  will 
remain  effective  for  many  months,  even  a  year. 

Tartar  emetic  mixed  with  four  or  five  times  its  volume 
of  sirup  and  placed  about  in  shallow  dishes  is  an  effective 
remedy  against  house  ants.  It  is  also  mixed  with  sugar 
at  the  rate  of  1  part  tartar  emetic,  10  parts  sugar,  and 
100  parts  of  water.  This  mixture,  poured  into  individual 
butter  plates  and  set  about  in  a  refrigerator  or  pantry 
where  ants  are  numerous,  has  proven  very  effective. 

Naphthalene  flakes  have  also  proven  an  efficient  repel- 
lent against  ants.  The  material  is  simply  scattered  about 
on  the  shelves  and  in  the  corners  frequented  by  the  ants. 
A  somewhat  fuller  discussion  of  naphthalene  flakes  and 
their  use  against  fleas  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  fleas. 

The  only  method  of  getting  rid  of  ants  permanently  is 
by  locating  their  nests  and  treating  them  in  such  a  way 
that  the  queen  will  finally  be  destroyed.  Then  no  more 
eggs  will  be  laid  and  the  production  of  workers  will  cease. 
One  of  the  best  substances  for  treating  nests  to  kill  the 
queen  and  exterminate  the  workers  is  carbon  bisulfide. 


182  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

It  is  often  difficult  to  locate  the  nest  and  sometimes,  when 
found,  it  will  be  in  an  inaccessible  situation,  for  example, 
in  the  foundation  walls,  or  under  the  floor,  or  in  some  other 
equally  secluded  and  protected  place.  One  writer  sug- 
gests that  the  black  ants  may  be  traced  to  their  nests  by 
baiting  them  with  broken  pieces  of  rice,  farina,  or  cream 
of  wheat.  The  ants  will  carry  these  pieces  of  white  food 
to  their  nests  and  may  be  quite  easily  traced  in  this  way. 
Perhaps  the  red  ant  may  be  followed  to  its  home  by  this 
means.  When  the  colony  is  located  it  may  be  treated  with 
carbon  bisulfide  by  pouring  an  ounce  or  two  of  the  liquid 
into  each  of  several  holes  made  in  the  nest  with  a  sharpened 
stick,  after  which  the  mouth  of  each  hole  should  be  quickly 
stopped  with  a  clod  of  dirt.  A  heavy  wet  blanket  thrown 
over  the  nest  will  aid  in  retaining  the  gas  and  tend  to  make 
the  fumigation  more  effective.  The  liquid  evaporates 
quickly  and  the  gas  permeates  the  whole  nest,  killing 
queens  and  workers  and  exterminating  the  colony.  By 
attaching  a  torch  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole  and  extending 
it  out  over  the  nest  while  the  operator  stands  at  a  safe 
distance,  the  gas  may  be  exploded  and  the  fumes  driven 
into  all  corners  of  the  colony.  If  the  colony  is  located  in 
the  foundation  walls,  the  problem  will  be  much  more 
difficult  and  may  be  impossible  of  solution.  The  difficulty 
will  be  in  reaching  the  nest  with  the  liquid.  If  the  nest 
is  located  under  the  floor,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove 
a  piece  of  the  flooring  in  order  to  gain  access  to  the 
colony. 

In  the  use  of  carbon  bisulfide,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  gas  is  inflammable  and  explosive  and  no  form  of 
fire  or  light  should  be  brought  near  the  place  being  fumi- 
gated. 


ANTS 


183 


-  C.  W.  Woodworth  says  that  a  very  weak  solution  of 
arsenic  poison  such  as  he  has  used  for  the  Argentine  ant 
is  effective  in  exterminating  common  species  of  ants.  The 
proportions  of  arsenic  and  methods  of  using  it  are  given 
under  the  discussion  of  the  Argentine  ant. 


THE   ARGENTINE   ANT 

As  a  pest,  the  Argentine  ant  (Fig.  51)  stands  in  a  class 
by  itself.  Newell,  writing  of  this  ant  in  1908,  says,  "As  a. 
household  pest,  I  venture  the  opinion 
that  this  ant  has  no  equal  in  the 
United  States."  Unfortunately,  it  is 
not  only  a  household  pest,  but  it  has 
come  to  be  a  serious  menace  to  horti- 
cultural interests  because  it  destroys 
the  buds,  blooms,  and  fruits  of  certain 
plants  and  because  it  protects  and 
fosters  some  scale  insects  that  are 
very  injurious  to  certain  plants, 
notably  sugar  cane.  Again,  in  some 
instances  it  has  actually  shown  itself  FlG  51._The  queen 

to  be  dangerous  to  human  life.  Argentine    ant,      eu- 

In  all  probability  this  ant  was  first  larged' 
introduced  into  the  United  States  through  the  port  of 
New  Orleans  by  way  of  the  coffee  ships  or  other  ships 
from  South  American  points.  The  ant  is  a  native  of 
America  in  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic  and  now 
infests  the  southern  parts  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  parts 
of  California  and  probably  Texas. 

This  ant  builds  its  nests  everywhere,  underneath  houses, 
between  the  walls  of  houses,  in  hollow  trees,  in  compost 


184  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

heaps,  in  dooryards  under  stones,  and  in  many  other  places. 
They  increase  with  great  rapidity,  destroy  or  drive  out 
other  ants  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  and  penetrate 
every  room,  closet,  trunk,  and  corner  of  a  dwelling. 
They  are  fond  of  all  sugars,  sirups,  fruit  juices,  honey, 
cakes,  fresh  meat,  blood,  lard,  cream,  dead  insects,  and 
other  substances.  Like  other  ants,  they  are  fond  of  the 
honey-dew  secreted  by  aphids  and,  as  a  result,  they  foster 
aphids  and  certain  scale  insects  greatly  to  the  detriment 
of  the  infested  plants.  In  Audubon  Park,  New  Orleans, 
Newell  says  they  destroyed  the  entire  orange  crop  by  eat- 
ing into  the  fruit  buds  and  that  much  of  the  fig  crop  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  city  was  also  destroyed.  What  is  more 
remarkable  still,  infants  have  been  reported  to  have  been 
killed  by  the  hordes  of  these  ants  crawling  into  the  mouth 
and  nasal  passages.  Newell  relates  an  instance  falling 
under  his  personal  observation  of  an  infant's  being  found 
in  great  distress  during  the  night  from  the  thousands  of 
these  ants  that  were  crawling  into  its  mouth  and  nostrils. 
The  child  had  to  be  submerged  several  times  in  water 
before  the  ants  were  driven  from  its  body.  It  would 
seem  that  the  possibilities  of  this  ant  for  committing  in- 
juries of  many  kinds  and  against  various  interests  are 
almost  unlimited. 

It  seems  that  this  ant  is  more  persistent  than  any  of 
our  native  species  and  the  only  permanent  way  to  obtain 
relief  is  to  destroy  the  whole  colony,  especially  the  queen. 

Winter  trapping. — These  ants  have  a  peculiar  and  rather 
striking  habit  regarding  their  method  of  passing  the 
winter.  In  the  autumn,  there  is  a  tendency  for  several 
small  colonies  to  combine  into  one  very  large  colony  which 
then  seeks  a  suitably  protected  location  for  the  winter 


ANTS  185 

season.  Newell  says  that  he  has  taken  advantage  of  this 
habit  by  providing  a  dry  goods  box  and  filling  it  with 
cotton  seed  and  straw,  leaving  the  top  open  so  that  the 
rains  will  moisten  the  material  and  cause  decay  with  a 
consequent  production  of  heat,  especially  in  the  center  of 
the  mass.  By  placing  the  box  in  the  middle  of  a  city  lot 
or  garden  nearly  all  the  ant  colonies  within  thirty  or  forty 
yards  will  migrate  to  it  and  settle  among  the  warm,  decay- 
ing matter.  By  throwing  a  rubber  cloth  or  waterproof 
canvas  over  the  top  of  the  box  in  January  the  whole  collec- 
tion may  be  killed  with  a  pound  of  carbon  bisulfide. 

Summer  destruction.  —  Whenever  a  colony  is  located  in 
the  ground  about  the  lawn  or  garden,  it  can  be  extermi- 
nated with  carbon  bisulfide.  Colonies  occurring  under 
boards  or  piles  of  rubbish  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing them  with  kerosene,  crude  oil,  or  boiling  water.  When 
a  colony  is  located  in  an  inaccessible  situation  it  may 
often  be  coaxed  into  a  location  in  which  it  can  be  easily 
reached.  For  example,  they  are  very  fond  of  decaying 
wood  as  a  nesting  place,  and  if  a  piece  of  decayed  log 
with  a  jar  of  honey  or  sugar  is  placed  near  the  inaccessible 
situation,  the  colony  will  often  desert  their  old  nest  and 
move  bodily  into  the  log.  In  this  situation  every  individ- 
ual may  easily  be  destroyed. 

Repellents.  —  The  ant  tape  is  effective  in  preventing  the 
ants  from  reaching  tables  and  other  situations  where  the 
tape  is  so  placed  that  the  ants  must  cross  it  if  they  reach 
their  desired  goal. 

Again,  Newell  says  he  has  had  success  in  driving  the  ants 
from  a  room  which  they  persist  in  visiting  by  using  a 
poisoned  solution  of  sugar  or  molasses.  The  solution  giv- 
ing best  satisfaction  was  made  with  white  arsenic  J  gram, 


186  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

sugar  20  grams,  water  100  cubic  centimeters.  The  arsenic 
is  dissolved  in  a  portion  of  the  water  by  boiling  and  the 
sugar  in  the  remainder.  The  two  portions  are  then  mixed 
and  enough  water  added  to  make  up  for  the  loss  by 
evaporation  in  boiling.  When  the  solution  was  placed 
about  in  small  dishes,  as  was  described  for  the  tartar 
emetic,  the  ants,  in  some  cases  at  least,  gradually  left  the 
vicinity. 

C.  W.  Woodworth  obtained  the  best  results  in  killing 
the  Argentine  ant  by  the  use  of  a  very  weak  solution  of 
arsenic  and  sirup.  He  found  that  by  reducing  the  arsenic 
to  between  one-fourth  and  one-eighth  of  1  per  cent  that 
the  ants  would  take  large  quantities  of  the  poisoned  mate- 
rial to  their  nests  and  feed  it  to  the  young  and  the  whole 
nest  would  be  killed  by  slow  poisoning.  The  most  con- 
venient way  to  feed  the  poison  was  by  placing  a  sponge 
saturated  with  the  solution  in  jars  with  perforated  covers. 
The  ants  will  enter  the  jars,  fill  themselves  with  the  sirup, 
and  carry  it  away. 

In  a  later  experiment  Nickels  used  sodium  arsenite 
which  contains  about  57f  per  cent  of  arsenic.  To  make  a 
weak  solution,  he  dissolves  a  trifle  over  one  ounce  of  the 
arsenite  in  a  little  hot  water.  When  dissolved  it  is  added 
to  a  sweetened  solution  of  20  pounds  of  sugar  dissolved  in 
three  quarts  of  water.  It  is  necessary  to  heat  the  sirup 
mixture  to  thoroughly  dissolve  the  sugar. 

To  make  a  small  amount  of  the  mixture,  dissolve  3 
grams  of  the  arsenite  in  a  little  water  and  add  it  to  a 
sweetened  sirup  of  2  pounds  of  sugar  dissolved  in  J  of  a 
pint  of  water.  He  says,  "We  have  established  that  it  is 
possible  to  exterminate  the  Argentine  ant  and  to  absolutely 
prevent  its  spread." 


ANTS  187 

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1910.  WHEELER,  W.  M.  —  Ants,  their  structure,  development  and 
behavior.     Book,  663  pp. 

1911.  NICKELS,  L.  J.  —  Field  work  in  the  control  of  the  Argentine 
ant.     Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  4,  pp.  353-358. 

1912.  HUNTER,  W.  D.  —  Two  destructive  Texas  ants,  Circ.  148, 
Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri. 


CHAPTER  IX 
INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  AND  CARPETS 

A  RATHER  large  variety  of  insects  attacks  fabrics  of 
different  kinds,  particularly  those  that  contain  much  wool. 
Some,  however,  are  impartial  in  their  tastes,  while  others 
prefer  starched  cotton  materials.  Fabrics  that  remain 
undisturbed  for  some  time  are  most  likely  to  harbor  the 
pests. 

THE   CASE-MAKING   CLOTHES  MOTH 

Tinea  pellionella  et  al. 

Clothes  moths  have  been  the  bugbears  of  all  house- 
keepers probably  since  man  began  to  live  in  houses  and 
wear  woolen  and  fur  garments.  The  larvae  of  clothes 
moths  subsist  on  dried  animal  matter,  such  as  the  dead 
bodies  of  insects,  dried  skins,  feathers,  wool,  and  hair. 
It  is  quite  possible,  as  Marlatt  suggests,  that  these  insects 
first  came  into  association  with  man  as  scavengers  living 
upon  the  waste  animal  matter  about  his  rude  and  unsani- 
tary habitations.  Subsequently,  when  these  convenient 
supplies  of  food  were  removed,  the  insects  were  driven  to 
eat  the  hair  and  skin  of  the  garments  worn  by  man,  later 
attacking  the  woolen  fabrics  as  they  came  into  use.  Thus 
the  moths  have  kept  pace  with  man,  improving  their  tastes 
as  man  progressed  until  now  they  apparently  delight  most 
in  attacking  the  finest  garments  and  costliest  furs. 


190  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  clothes  moths  are  all  introduced  species,  having 
come  to  us  from  European  countries  along  with  our  fore- 
fathers. It  is  certain  that  they  have  existed  in  this  coun- 
try for  many  years,  for  Peter  Kalm,  a  professor  in  a  Swedish 
university,  in  a  quaint  account  written  in  1771  (3d.  ed.) 
of  his  travels  in  North  America,  tells  us  that  "  Moths,  or 
Tinece,  which  eat  the  clothes,  are  likewise  abundant 
here.  I  have  seen  cloth,  worsted  gloves,  and  other 
woolen  stuffs,  which  have  hung  all  the  summer  locked 
up  in  a  shrine,  and  had  not  been  taken  care  of,  quite 
cut  through  by  these  worms,  so  that  whole  pieces  fell 
out."  This  description  wrould  fit  conditions  that  are 
often  found  to-day  quite  as  well  as  a  century  and  a 
half  ago. 

Not  only  have  clothes  moths  been  long  known  and 
recognized  in  America,  but  they  have  been  familiar  insects 
to  the  human  race  for  thousands  of  years.  They  are 
referred  to  in  the  Book  of  Job  in  the  well-known  passage, 
"  And  he,  as  a  rotten  thing,  consumeth,  as  a  garment,  that 
is  moth-eaten."  The  Romans  were  well  acquainted  with 
insects  that  destroyed  clothing,  and  they  applied  the  name 
Tinea  to  the  caterpillar  of  any  clothes  moth,  no  matter 
what  species,  that  was  found  injuring  clothes.  Pliny 
speaks  of  a  Tinea  with  its  case  and  relates  how  it  changes  to 
a  chrysalis  from  which  the  moth  finally  issues.  Scientists 
have,  therefore,  adopted  the  name,  Tineidce,  for  the  family 
containing  the  clothes  moths  and  many  other  closely 
related  moths,  all  of  which  are  very  small,  although  the 
name  of  the  family  has  no  connection  with  our  word  tiny. 
The  moths  belonging  to  the  family  Tineidse  are  all  very 
small  and  have  narrow  wings  fringed  with  very  long, 
slender  scales.  Although  small,  some  of  them  are  really 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  191 

very  beautiful,  surpassing  many  of  our  larger  moths  in 
brilliancy  and  richness  of  coloring. 

There  was  always  a  great  deal  of  confusion  concerning 
the  species  of  clothes  moths  in  this  country  until  Fernald, 
in  conjunction  with  Lord  Walsingham  of  England,  an 
authority  on  these  insects,  settled  the  question  by  a  care- 
ful examination  and  comparison  of  the  specimens  found 
in  America.  It  was  determined  that  there  were  three 
species  in  the  United  States,  evidently  all  European  in 
origin.  It  seems  that  there  are  no  native  clothes  moths  in 
the  United  States.  The  three  species  are  now  known  as 
the  case-making  clothes  moth  (Tinea  pellionella),  the 
webbing  clothes  moth  (Tineola  biselliella) ,  and  the  gallery- 
making  or  tapestry  clothes  moth  ( Trichophaga  tapetzella) . 

There  seems  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which 
is  the  commoner  species  of  moth  in  the  northern  sections  of 
America.  Fletcher  maintained  that  he  had  found  the 
webbing  moth  much  more  common  in  Canada,  while 
Riley  finds  the  webbing  moth  more  common  in  the  South, 
and  the  case-making  species  more  abundant  in  the  North. 
It  is  certain  that  in  every  case  in  which  the  work  of  these 
insects  has  been  brought  to  the  author's  attention  in  New 
York  many  small  whitish,  silken  cases  have  been  found 
upon  the  material  being  eaten.  Moreover,  these  cases 
have  invariably  been  empty  as  though  they  were  pupal 
cases  rather  than  the  cases  of  larvae.  The  writer  is  in- 
clined to  believe  that  these  were  the  pupal  cases  of  the 
webbing  clothes  moth,  T.  biselliella  rather  than  the  cases 
of  T.  pellionella.  If  so,  then  Fletcher  seems  to  be  correct 
regarding  the  more  common  species  in  southern  Canada 
and  New  York.  We  have  seen  the  work  of  these  insects 
especially  on  fur  caps  and  felt  hats.  Perhaps,  on  woolen 


192  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

clothing  we  should  find  the  case-making  species  more 
abundant.  A  more  detailed  investigation  of  the  life 
history,  habits,  and  distribution  of  these  moths  is  much 
needed. 

The  moths  (Fig.  52)  of  the  case-making  species  are 
small,  measuring  only  about  half  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip 

of  the  tiny  wings  when 
they  are  squarely  ex- 
panded. The  fore  wings 
are  of  a  shining  yellowish- 
brown  color  with  three 
distinct  dark  spots  on 

FIG.  52. -Case-making  clothes  moth.    each    Qf    them>    whye    the 

hind  wings  are  smaller 

and  lighter  in  color  and  clothed  with  a  fringe  of  long 
slender  scales  along  the  posterior  margins. 

Normally,  the  moths  appear  in  the  spring  and  may  be 
seen  flitting  about  rooms  most  of  the  summer.  They  are 
apparently  attracted  more  or  less  by  lights  and  are  fre- 
quently seen  flying  aimlessly  about  a  lamp  at  night.  The 
moths,  of  course,  are  innocent  enough,  so  far  as  any  actual 
direct  damage  to  clothing  is  concerned.  Nevertheless 
much  energy  is  expended  by  the  careful  housekeeper  in 
catching  and  killing  them.  This  energy,  however,  is  not 
wholly  lost,  for  if  the  moths  are  allowed  to  live,  they  may 
deposit  eggs  for  the  production  of  larvae,  the  real  authors 
of  the  injury.  Undoubtedly,  many  small,  harmless 
moths  are  often  mistakenly  destroyed  for  the  more  injuri- 
ous clothes  moths. 

The  tiny  eggs  of  this  moth  are  tucked  away  among  the 
folds  of  the  garments  upon  which  the  larvae  are  expected 
to  feed.  When  they  hatch,  the  minute  white-bodied 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  193 

larva  begins,  at  once,  to  make  a  case  for  itself.  The  case 
is  a  nearly  cylindrical  tube  open  at  both  ends.  It  is,  how- 
ever, slightly  larger  in  the  middle,  thus  resembling  a  cigar 
in  shape  (Fig.  53).  The  tube  is  made  of  silk  and  frag- 
ments of  the  material  upon  which  the  larva  is  feeding. 
When  feeding,  the  larva  thrusts  out  its  head  together  with 
its  thorax,  which  bears  the  three  pairs  of  legs ;  and  holding 
fast  to  its  case  with  a  pair  of  claspers  on  the  posterior  end 
of  the  body  drags  its  house  along  with  it  wherever  it  goes. 
When  disturbed,  the  larva  retreats 
quickly  within  its  case.  The  larvae 
feed  on  woolens,  clothing,  carpets, 
furs,  and  feathers,  and  are  exceedingly  FIG.  53.  —  Case  of  the 
destructive.  Fernald  says  that  these  case-making  clothes 

moth.     (X  3.) 

moths  breed  during  the  summer, 
but  not  in  winter,  even  when  kept  in  a  room  warmed 
by  a  furnace  where  the  heat  was  uniform  day  and  night. 
The  moths  emerge  in  June  and  July,  and  some  even  as 
late  as  August,  yet  there  is  but  a  single  generation 
annually,  so  far  as  I  have  observed."  In  the  South 
there  are  probably  more  generations  a  year. 

The  young  larva,  of  course,  soon  finds  its  case  too  small 
and,  as  it  grows,  it  has  to  enlarge  the  case  from  time  to 
time.  This  enlargement  is  done  in  a  very  interesting  man- 
ner. Without  emerging  from  its  case,  the  larva  cuts  a 
slit  halfway  down  one  side,  thus  forming  a  triangular 
opening.  Into  this  opening  it  inserts  a  triangular  gore  of 
the  woolen  material  upon  which  it  is  feeding.  This  process 
is  repeated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  case  and  without 
leaving  its  retreat  it  turns  around  and  repeats  the  same 
thing  on  the  other  half  of  the  case.  Thus  the  case  is 
enlarged  in  diameter,  but  it  remains  for  the  larva  to 
o 


194  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

lengthen  its  home.  This  is  done  by  additions  to  each  end 
of  the  case.  On  the  outside  the  case  appears  to  be  com- 
posed of  fibers  of  the  material  upon  which  the  larva  has 
been  feeding,  but  inside  the  case  is  lined  with  a  soft  layer 
of  fine  silk.  By  transferring  the  larva  to  different  colored 
materials  a  curiously  parti-colored  case  may  be  obtained, 
for  the  insect  will  use  the  various  materials  for  the  enlarge- 
ments. 

The  larva  completes  its  growth  by  fall  and  seeks  a 
secluded  place  in  which  to  secrete  itself  and  spend  the 
winter  in  a  torpid  condition.  The  larvae  have  been  ob- 
served to  leave  the  carpets  upon  which  they  were  feeding 
and  drag  their  cases  up  a  wall  fifteen  feet  high  and  fasten 
them  to  the  ceiling.  In  the  spring,  the  larvae  transform 
to  pupa3  in  the  cases  within  which  they  have  lived  during 
the  winter.  Apparently  the  pupal  stage  lasts  about  three 
weeks.  The  moths  do  not  survive  long  after  depositing 
their  eggs.  As  a  usual  thing  they  shun  daylight  and 
remain  hidden  in  dark  corners. 

The  larva  of  the  clothes  moth,  despite  its  secluded  life, 
more  or  less  protected  in  a  case,  is  sought  out  by  certain 
tiny  but  persistent  parasites  and  killed.  At  least  two  of 
these  parasites  have  been  reared  from  the  larval  cases  of 
this  moth.  They  are  Hyperacmus  tinice  Riley,  Ms.,  and 
Apanteles  carpatus  Say. 


THE   WEBBING   CLOTHES  MOTH 

Tineola  biselliella 

By  some  authorities,  this  species  is  considered  more 
common  in  the  Southern  states  than  in  the  North.     It  is 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CLOTHES  195 

certain  that  it  exists  in  the  South  in  abundance,  for  the 
writer  has  seen  many  of  the  naked  larva?  of  this  moth  on 
woolen  materials.  We. recall  to  mind  a  college  pennant 
of  red  felt  that  was  stretched  on  the  wall  of  a  room  in 
Mississippi.  This  banner  was  riddled  and  eaten  by  the 
larvae  of  this  species  while  it  rested  in  that  exposed  posi- 
tion on  the  wall  of  the  room.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
webbing  or  naked  clothes  moth  is  certainly  abundant  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ithaca,  New  York.  The  author  has  collected 
the  larvaB  in  abundance  from  furs  and  rugs  and  has  taken 
the  moths  in  houses  in  April  and  May.  In  fact,  this  is  the 
only  species  we  have  taken  at  Ithaca.  Fletcher,  as  we 
have  already  pointed  out, 
found  this  form  more  com- 
mon in  Canada  than  he  did 
the  case-making  species. 
Washburn  also  states  that  FlG-  54-  —  Webbing  clothes  moth, 
he  has  come  in  contact  with 

only  this  species  in  Minnesota.  These  observations 
certainly  indicate  the  abundance  of  the  webbing  clothes 
moth  in  the  North. 

This  moth  (Fig.  54)  is  usually  a  little  larger  than  the 
case-making  moth,  although  it  varies  a  good  deal  in  size. 
The  fore  wings  are  decidedly  more  yellowish  in  color  — 
generally  described  as  "shining  ochreous"  without  spots 
or  markings.  The  hind  wings  are  paler,  while  the  head  is 
reddish. 

The  larvae  live  upon  a  great  variety  of  substances  such 
as  fur,  feathers,  wool,  bodies  of  insects,  and  are  occasion- 
ally found  in  the  upholstering  of  furniture.  The  larvae 
have  been  observed  in  England  to  eat  cobwebs  found  in 
the  corners  of  rooms  and  have,  in  fact,  been  reared  to 


196  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

maturity  on  this  rather  filmy  food.  The  larvae  are  also, 
occasionally,  somewhat  injurious  to  specimens  in  museums 
and  collections,  especially  to  the  bodies  of  insects.  F.  M. 
Webster  experienced  considerable  trouble  from  the  larvae 
of  this  moth  eating  into  and  riddling  the  bodies  of  the 
larger  moths  in  his  collection  of  insects  in  Ohio.  C.  V. 
Riley  records  rearing  the  insect  from  grain  infested  with 
the  grain  moth,  Sitotroga  cerealella.  Evidently  the  larvae 
had  fed  upon  the  dead  caterpillars  of  the  grain  moth. 
Riley  and  Howard  report,  in  Insect  Life,  the  interesting 
instance  of  the  larvae  having  been  found  in  a  can  of  beef 
meal  which  had  been  rejected  as  being 
"weevilly."  The  presence  of  the  larvae 
of  this  clothes  moth  in  the  beef  meal 
demonstrated  its  fondness  for  animal 
products. 

The  life  history  of  this  species  has 
FlG-  ui-~Eg^°futhe  not   been   carefully   followed,  but   we 

webbing    clothes  j          i  f 

moth,  (x  25.)  have  had  them  under  observation  tor 
some  time.  The  egg  is  oval,  pearly 
white,  and  very  small  (Fig.  55),  yet  visible  to  the  eye. 
The  eggs  are  desposited  on  the  cloth  or  material  on 
which  the  larvae  will  feed.  Eggs  were  easily  obtained 
by  putting  moths  in  cages  along  with  black  cloth. 
One  moth  laid  44  eggs  in  a  period  of  9  days.  These 
hatched  uniformly  in  six  days  and  the  larvae  from  these 
eggs,  which  hatched  July  31st  to  August  8th,  are  only 
partly  grown  at  this  writing,  March  22d.  They  have 
been  kept  in  a  cool  room.  From  some  overwintering 
larvae  we  obtained  pupae  from  May  15th  to  May  18th. 
We  obtained  an  adult  moth  on  May  28th  from  a  pupa 
formed  on  the  16th,  thus  giving  a  pupal  stage  of  about 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  CLOTHES 


197 


FIG. 


12  days.  In  another  instance,  the  pupal  period  ap- 
peared to  be  about  16  days.  It  is  said  there  are  two 
generations  of  this  clothes  moth  in  the  Northern  states, 
"  the  first  appearing  in 
June  from  eggs  deposited 
in  May,  and  the  second 
in  August  and  Septem- 
ber." It  would  appear, 
from  our  studies,  that  the 
first  generation  of  moths  is  from  eggs  deposited  in  July 
and  August  of  the  previous  year. 

The  larva  (Fig.  56)  of  this  moth  builds  no  case,  but  spins 
a  path  of  silk  wherever  it  goes.  When  the  larva  is  full 
grown  it  builds  a  cocoon  of  silk  intermixed  with  bits  of 
food  material.  The  cocoon  is  rather  rougher  and  more 
irregular  in  outline  than  that  of  the  case-making  moth. 


56.  —  Larva    of    the    webbing 
clothes  moth.     (X  6.) 


THE   TAPESTRY   MOTH 

Trichophaga  tapetzella 

The  tapestry  moth  (Fig.  57)  is  somewhat  rare  in  this 
country,  but  apparently  common  in  England.  It  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  either  of  the  other  two  species  and 
much  more  striking  in  appearance,  owing  to  the  markings 

on  its  wings.  The 
wings  expand  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch 
and  arc  black  from  the 
base  to  the  middle, 
J  \  while  the  outer  half  is 

FIG.  57.  —  Tapestry  moth.     (X  3.)         white,      clouded      with 


198  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

gray.  There  is  a  tiny  dark  spot  about  midway  of  the 
hind  edge  of  each  wing  and  two  similar  dots  with  a 
dark  area  at  the  apex  of  each  wing.  The  hind  wings 
are  light  gray  in  color,  while  the  head  bears  a  tuft  of 
long  white  hairs. 

The  larvse  feed  on  a  variety  of  materials,  such  as  pelts, 
felts,  carpets,  horse  blankets,  and  upholstering  of  carriages. 
In  England  the  larvae  are  met  with  more  frequently  in  out- 
houses where  carriages  are  kept  than  in  the  dwelling-houses. 
The  larvae  burrow  inside  of  the  material  upon  which  they 
feed  when  this  is  thick  enough  to  enable  them  to  do  it. 
They,  therefore,  do  not  construct  cases,  but  they  do  line 
their  burrows  with  silk.  On  account  of  this  borrowing 
habit  these  larvae  destroy  much  more  material  than  they 
eat.  Within  these  galleries  it  undergoes  its  transforma- 
tions to  the  pupal  stage. 

One  of  the  parasites  (Apanteles  carpatus)  on  the  case- 
making  moth  has  also  been  reared  from  the  tapestry  moth. 

METHODS   OF  CONTROL 

First  of  all,  it  should  be  definitely  understood  that 
odors  emanating  from  small  quantities  of  various  sub- 
stances like  camphor  balls,  cedar,  or  naphthalene,  have 
no  killing  effect  on  the  moths  or  larvae.  Cedar  chests  or 
closets  lined  with  cedar  are  of  no  avail  if  eggs  are  once 
deposited  on  clothes  stored  in  them.  Apparently,  the 
odor  of  cedar  has  some  effect  in  keeping  the  moths 
away.  The  odor  of  camphor  balls  also  has  a  repelling 
effect  on  the  moths.  But  a  few  moth-balls  placed  among 
clothes  in  a  chest  do  not  prevent  injury  if  eggs  are  deposited 
on  the  garments  before  the  latter  are  put  away.  The 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  199 

real  function  and  value,  then,  of  cedar  chests  or  closets 
lies  in  repelling  the  moths  and  keeping  them  away  from 
the  garments.  The  garments,  however,  must  be  free 
from  all  eggs  and  larvae  of  the  moths  before  being  put  in 
chests.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  shake  and  brush 
the  garments  and  to  hang  them  in  the  sun  and  air  until 
all  of  the  larvae  and  eggs  have  been  shaken  loose  and 
destroyed. 

In  the  second  place,  it  should  be  plainly  understood 
that  garments  which  are  often  worn  are  not  liable  to  be 
injured.  It  is  the  clothing  and  materials  that  are  stored 
away  in  closets,  trunks,  and  boxes,  for  a  long  time  undis- 
turbed, that  are  badly  troubled.  It  is  under  such  condi- 
tions that  the  moths  get  an  opportunity  to  deposit  their 
eggs  and  the  eggs  have  a  chance  to  lie  undisturbed  long 
enough  to  hatch  and  the  larvae  have  occasion  to  eat  and 
grow  toward  maturity. 

Sunlight  and  air  are  among  our  best  available  agents 
of  protection  from  clothes  moths.  Garments  should  be 
hung  in  the  air  and  sun  and  then  thoroughly  brushed  and 
shaken  to  dislodge  the  eggs  and  larvae  that  may  be  on 
them  before  being  put  away  for  the  summer.  In  addition, 
they  should  be  taken  out  occasionally  (once  a  month) 
and  brushed,  shaken,  and  aired.  The  same  treatment 
should  be  accorded  woolen  blankets  and  bedding  that 
are  to  be  stored.  After  they  are  once  thoroughly  cleaned, 
they  may  be  packed  away  with  a  supply  of  camphor  balls 
distributed  among  them  to  repel  the  moths.  It  is  advis- 
able to  spray  the  cracks  in  closets  and  chests  with  benzine 
or  gasoline  before  putting  in  the  clothes  in  order  to  kill 
any  eggs  or  larvae  of  the  moths  that  may  be  lurking  there. 

A  few  old  woolen  rags  or  pieces  of  old  furs  stored  in 


200  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

attics  but  never  used  are  prolific  breeding  places  for  these 
moths  and  should  be  taken  out  and  burned. 

Howard  early  suggested  a  method  of  putting  away 
winter  wraps  and  garments  for  storage  during  the  summer 
which  is  practical  and  efficient,  as  we  know  from  experi- 
ence. He  goes  to  the  tailor  shop  and  purchases  a  few 
common  pasteboard  suit  boxes  and  in  these  the  garments 
to  be  stored  are  neatly  folded  away.  Then  the  cracks 
around  the  edges  of  the  cover  are  sealed  by  pasting  strips 
of  paper  over  them.  This  makes  a  tight  box  that  excludes 
all  moths.  The  boxes,  with  care,  last  several  years. 

Another  method  of  storing  clothes  is  given  by  a  resident 
of  the  city  of  Washington.  He  has  a  wooden  chest  to 
hold  his  clothes.  In  the  cover  of  the  chest  he  has  bored  a 
large  hole  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  cover,  directly  under 
the  hole,  he  has  tied  a  large  sponge.  In  the  middle  of  the 
summer  he  pours  a  little  carbon  bisulfide  on  the  sponge 
and  closes  the  hole  with  a  cork.  In  this  way,  he  keeps  the 
clothes  free  from  injury. 

Washburn  uses  a  somewhat  similar  method.  He  has  a 
large  galvanized  iron  chest  with  a  tight-fitting  cover  in 
which  the  garments  are  stored.  During  the  summer  he 
opens  the  chest  occasionally  and  pours  four  tablespoonfuls 
of  carbon  bisulfide  in  a  saucer  on  top  of  the  clothes  and 
shuts  the  cover.  In  this  way  he  kills  whatever  larva? 
may  have  hatched  from  eggs  desposited  on  the  clothes 
before  they  were  stored  away. 

Finally,  moth  proof  paper  bags  of  large  size  are  now 
offered  for  sale  at  many  drug  stores  in  the  larger  towns. 
The  bags  are  large  enough  to  receive  skirts  and  coats 
without  folding  and  they  are  so  constructed  that  moths 
cannot  gain  entrance  to  the  inside.  These  bags  are  safe 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  201 

receptacles  for  the  storage  of  materials  liable  to  be  in- 
fested with  moths  and  will  last  for  years. 

The  upholstering  on  furniture  and  carriages  is  much 
harder  to  protect  from  the  moths.  Badly  infested  up- 
holstered furniture  should  be  placed  in  a  small  tight  room 
and  thoroughly  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Some  good  can  undoubtedly  be  accomplished  by  spray- 
ing them  several  times  during  the  summer  with  benzine  or 
gasoline.  These  volatile  liquids  will  not  stain  if  they  are 
reasonably  clean.  Care  should  be  exercised  regarding 
lights  because  gasoline  and  benzine  are  very  inflammable. 

COLD  STORAGE 

Cold  storage  plants  for  fruits  and  meats  are  common 
nowadays  in  all  cities  and  in  many  small  towns.  These 
plants  are  available  for  various  uses,  among  which  is  the 
storage  of  furs,  rugs,  and  other  valuable  woolen  goods 
during  the  summer  season  when  the  owners  are  out  of 
town.  In  fact,  this  is  fast  becoming  in  cities  a  universal 
way  of  storing  household  goods. 

L.  O.  Howard  reports  some  careful  experiments  carried 
out  mainly  by  Albert  N.  Read,  manager  of  a  cold  storage 
warehouse  in  Washington,  D.C.  It  was  demonstrated 
in  this  series  of  experiments  that  a  continuous  tempera- 
ture of  40  degrees  F.  is  sufficient  to  maintain  the  larvae  of 
the  case-making  clothes  moth  in  an  inactive  dormant  con- 
dition. It  was  also  shown  that  the  larvae  could  exist  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  18  degrees  if  it  were  continuous.  If, 
however,  the  larvae  were  taken  out  and  revived  by  warmth 
and  then  returned  to  the  low  temperature  they  almost 
invariably  died.  These  results  are  in  accord  with  the 


202  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

general  idea  that  the  immature  stages  of  insects  are 
much  more  subject  to  the  effects  of  varying  degrees  of 
temperature  than  of  even  and  continuous  temperatures. 
In  the  light  of  these  experiments,  it  is  suggested  that 
cold  storage  companies  subject  the  goods  in  their  care  to 
low  temperatures  for  a  few  days  and  then  allow  them  to 
rest  for  a  few  days  at  higher  temperatures,  followed  again 
by  cold.  Such  variations  of  temperature  would  actually 
kill  all  the  moths  and  larvse  that  might  be  hiding  among 
the  goods,  after  which  they  could  be  stored  at  a  uniform 
temperature  of  40  degrees  with  perfect  safety. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CLOTHES  MOTHS 

1771.     KALM,  PETER.  —  Travels  into  North  America,  etc.  (3d.  ed.) 

(translated  by  J.  R.  Foster),  Vol.  II,  p.  8. 
1882.    FERNALD,  C.  H.  —  Clothes  moths.    Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  XIV, 

pp.  166-169. 
1890.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Some  insect  pests  of  the  household.     Insect 

Life,  Vol.  II,  pp.  211-215. 
1893.     FLETCHER,  JAMES.  —  Clothes  moths.     23d  Ann.  Rept.  Ent. 

Soc.  Ont,  pp.  53-58. 

1895.  Comstock,  J.  H.  —  The  clothes-moths.     Manual    for   the 
study  of  insects,  p.  257. 

1896.  BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Our  household  insects,  pp.  89-102. 
1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Some  temperature  effects  on  household 

insects.     Bull.  6,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.   13-17. 
1896.     MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp. 

63-69. 
1900.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  A  new  clothes  moth  remedy.     Bull.  22, 

n.s.,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  106. 
1908.     MARLATT,  C.  L. — The  true  clothes  moths.     Circ.  36,  s.s., 

Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-8. 
1910.    WASHBURN,  F.  L.  —  The  clothes  moth.     13th  Rept.  State 

Ent.  Minn.,  pp.  81-83. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  203 

THE  "BUFFALO  BUG"  OR  "BUFFALO  MOTH" 
Anthrenus  scrophularics 

There  are  two  species  of  beetles  in  the  United  States 
that  have  come  to  be  known  as  carpet  beetles.  Both  of 
them  are  small  insects  and  not  familiar  to  most  house- 
keepers. It  is  the  larvae  or  grubs  of  these  beetles  that 
really  do  the  mischief  and  with  these  many  housekeepers 
are  only  too  well  acquainted.  The  larvae  of  one  of  these 
carpet  beetles  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  "buffalo  bug" 
or  the  "buffalo  moth"  and  it  is  the  more  common  and 
better  known  of  the  two.  The  other  species  is  known 
simply  as  the  black  carpet  beetle. 

Again,  we  must  make  our  acknowledgments  to  the  Old 
World  for  a  comparatively  new  pest  in  a  new  and  serious  role. 
It  was  first  noted  as  a  serious  pest  in  this  country  about 
1874,  although  Henshaw  reports  it  at  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, as  early  as  1869.  In  Europe,  however,  no  records 
are  obtainable  that  show  it  is  especially  injurious  to  carpets, 
and  it  is  not  there  considered  a  serious  household  pest. 
At  least,  it  is  of  so  little  consequence  in  European  house- 
holds that  it  has  never  attracted  any  particular  attention. 
It  is  known  in  Europe  principally  as  a  pest  in  museums, 
where  it  is  often  found  eating  the  dead  bodies  of  specimens 
and  causing  considerable  injury.  Indeed,  it  was  imported 
into  this  country  several  times  in  insect  collections 
brought  from  Europe  and  has  played  the  r61e  of  a 
museum  pest  in  Cambridge,  Detroit,  and  San  Francisco. 
About  1874  it  was  imported  into  this  country  into  the 
cities  of  Boston  and  New  York,  probably  simultaneously, 
in  shipments  of  carpets.  Since  then  it  has  spread 


204 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


westward  through  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  and  Kansas. 

The  nature  of  the  pest.  —  In  this  country  this  pest  is 
usually  known  as  the  "  buffalo  bug  "  or  '*  buffalo  moth  "  (Fig. 
58).  These  names  are  both  misnomers  because  the  pest  is 
not  a  bug,  nor  is  it  a  moth.  On  the  contrary,  the  adult 
insect  is  a  small  beetle  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
long  with  a  general  background  of  black,  spotted  and 
speckled  with  white,  and  with  a  red  line  down  the  mid- 
dle of  its  back.  Near  each  end 


FIG.  58.  — The  "buffalo  bug 
(carpet  beetle).     (X  9.) 


there  are  side  projections  of  red. 
Thus  the  beetle  is  rather  hand- 
some in  its  markings  of  black, 
red,  and  white. 

Most  housewives  are,  however, 
not  acquainted  with  the  adult 
beetle,  but  rather  with  the 
active,  brown,  hairy  larva.  It 
is  not  the  full-grown  beetle  that 
inflicts  the  injury  to  carpets, 
woolens,  and  furs,  but,  like  the  clothes  moth,  it  is  the 
larva  that  does  the  mischief.  The  beetles  feed  upon 
the  pollen  of  flowers  and  are  often  found  out-of-doors 
in  the  spring  on  spirea,  wild  cherry,  and,  later,  on 
milfoil  and  other  plants.  When  the  beetles  develop  in 
the  house  they  fly  to  the  window  panes  in  an  effort  to 
escape  into  the  open  air.  Unfortunately,  lady-birds  (Fig. 
59)  are  often  found  in  the  same  situations  and  are  many 
times  mistaken  for  the  carpet  beetles  and  killed.  The 
adult  carpet  beetles,  when  disturbed,  fold  up  their  legs 
and  antennae,  feigning  death  and  playing  "  'possum." 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES 


205 


Life  history  of  the  beetle.  —  The  curiously  wrinkled, 
whitish  eggs  are  laid  by  the  mother  beetle  among  the 
fibers  of  the  cloth  upon  which  the  larvae  are  feeding  or 
will  feed.  Here,  under  favorable  circumstances,  they 
hatch  in  ten  days  to  two  weeks  and  the  larvae  eat  vora- 
ciously, grow  rather  rapidly  if  food  is  available,  and  cast 
their  skins,  un- 
der normal  con- 
ditions, about 
six  times.  The 
growth  of  the 
larvae  is  greatly 
retarded  by  cold 
weather  or  lack 
of  food,  but  still 
they  manage  to 
exist  and  live 
on  indefinitely, 
molting  many 
times  and  de- 
vouring their 
cast  skins. 

The  larva  is 
quite  character- 
istic in  appearance.  It  is  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length  and  clothed  with  long  brown  hairs  (Fig.  60). 
The  hairs  on  the  sides  of  the  body  are  longer  than  those 
on  the  back,  while  the  hairs  at  the  anterior  and  posterior 
ends  of  the  larva  are  longest  of  all.  The  larva  is  active 
and  seems  to  be  eating  most  of  the  time  whenever  food 
is  to  be  had. 

After  the  larva  reaches  full  growth,  it  transforms,  within 


FIG.  59.  — A  common  lady-bird.     (X  13.) 


206 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


its  last  skin,  into  the  pupa.  Finally,  this  old  larval  skin 
splits  down  the  back,  disclosing  the  pupa  within.  Eventu- 
ally, the  pupa  transforms  into  the  adult  beetle,  which 
often  finds  its  way  to  the  window  panes  in  search  of  an 
exit  to  its  out-door  food  plants.  Some  studies  made  here 
at  Cornell  indicate  that  there  is  only  one  generation  a 
year  in  this  latitude,  although  further 
observations  are  necessary  to  settle 
this  point.  L.  O.  Howard  says, 
"there  are,  probably,  in  the  North, 
not  more  than  two  annual  genera- 
tions." The  earliest  beetles  appear 
in  the  fall,  usually  during  October, 
and  continue  to  appear  all  winter  in 
well  warmed  houses  and  during  the 
spring  months.  We  have  found  the 
pupse  in  houses  in  January  together 
with  freshly  emerged  beetles. 

Injuries  and  methods  of  control.  — 
FIG.  60.  —  Cast   skin  The  larvae  when  abundant  may  injure 
of  larva  of  "Buffalo  carpets  rather  seriouslv.     They  gnaw 

moth.        (X  6.)  r  .  * .  '      . 

holes  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  in 
the  borders  where  the  latter  are  nailed  to  the  floor. 
Sometimes  the  larvae  follow  a  crack  in  the  floor  and  cut 
a  slit  in  the  carpet  almost  as  neatly  as  though  done  with 
scissors.  They  are  not  only  injurious  to  carpets,  but 
attack  woolen  goods  as  well,  and  even  wearing  apparel 
in  closets,  drawers,  and  trunks. 

This  insect  will  always  be  difficult  to  control  in  houses 
having  floors  completely  covered  with  carpets  tightly 
tacked  about  the  edges.  A  carpet  placed  permanently  on 
a  floor  and  allowed  to  remain  there  undisturbed  for  a  year 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  207 

furnishes  ideal  conditions  for  this  pest  to  thrive  and 
increase.  As  was  urged  in  the  case  of  fleas,  so  here  we 
would  urge  a  change  from  carpets  to  rugs  if  possible. 
Where  bare  floors,  covered  more  or  less  with  rugs,  are 
maintained,  the  carpet  beetles  will  not  find  hiding  places 
suited  to  their  development.  Moreover,  the  rugs  can  be 
examined  without  difficulty  at  any  time  and,  in  fact,  are 
usually  dusted  and  aired  too  often  for  the  larvae  to  gain  a 
foothold.  The  tendency  among  modern  homes  is  toward 
polished  floors  and  rugs  with  a  consequent  diminution  of 
the  carpet  beetles  as  a  household  pest. 

Where  the  insect  has  become  well  established  in  a  house, 
nothing  but  heroic  measures  and  long-continued  efforts 
will  avail.  Housecleaning  should  certainly  occur  twice 
a  year  instead  of  once  and  should  be  very  thoroughly  done, 
at  least,  so  far  as  the  carpets  are  concerned.  The  carpets 
should  be  removed,  thoroughly  dusted  and  beaten,  sprayed 
with  gasoline,  and  hung  in  the  air  and  sunlight  as  long  as 
possible. 

The  floors  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  scrubbed 
with  soap  and  water,  especially  along  the  baseboards  and 
cracks.  It  would  be  of  advantage  to  spray  the  cracks 
beneath  the  baseboards  with  benzine  or  gasoline  and  clean 
out  all  the  dirt  possible  from  the  cracks  in  the  floors 
and  pour  in  benzine  or  kerosene  oil.  Before  the  carpet 
is  replaced  on  old  floors,  the  cracks  should  be  filled 
with  a  crack-filler,  thus  eliminating  the  favorite  hiding 
places  for  the  larvae.  In  badly  infested  houses,  tarred 
building  paper  may  be  placed  beneath  the  carpets,  but  the 
odor  from  such  paper  is  not  always  pleasant. 

The  carpet  may  be  very  loosely  tacked  about  the  edges, 
thus  affording  an  opportunity  to  examine  it  often  to  see  if 


208  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

the  pests  have  returned.  The  following  is  a  good  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  one  housekeeper  finally  got  rid  of 
these  pests :  "  My  own  experience  with  them  began  last 
year.  We  moved  to  our  present  abode  in  April,  and  it  was 
not  until  every  carpet  had  been  put  down  and  the  house 
settled  that  I  was  aware  that  we  had  such  unwelcome 
guests.  I  was  not  long  in  observing  their  habit  of  running 
into  any  crack  and  crevice  that  presented  itself,  and  also 
running  along  the  joints  of  the  floors,  and  our  warfare 
against  them  was  directed  toward  these  joints.  In  the 
closets  we  stopped  up  every  nook  on  the  walls ;  every 
crevice  under  the  baseboards,  and  filled  up  the  joints  of 
the  floors ;  then  we  laid  down  oil-cloth,  and  kept  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  camphor  in  the  closets.  I  am  happy  to  say 
that  we  have  had  no  trouble  with  them  since  so  doing. 

"Fortunately,  we  had  put  paper  under  all  the  carpets,  so 
we  felt  that  they  were  in  a  measure,  at  least,  protected, 
but  I  found  them  continually,  just  under  the  edges  of  the* 
carpet.  As  far  as  possible,  we  filled  up  the  crevices  under 
the  baseboards  and  I  used  benzine  plentifully  all  the  sum- 
mer, saturating  the  borders  of  the  carpets  every  two  weeks 
and  killing  all  I  saw  in  the  meantime.  Last  spring  we 
varnished  the  cracks  of  the  floors,  and  in  some  cases,  where 
they  were  open,  covered  them  with  strips  of  thin  muslin 
stuck  down  with  the  varnish ;  we  again  put  paper  under 
the  carpets,  as  we  had  found  it  such  protection  the  previ- 
ous year.  I  have  found  the  various  insect  powders  of  no 
use  whatever  when  the  insect  is  in  the  larval  state: 
whether  or  not  it  has  any  effect  on  the  beetle  I  cannot  say ; 
but  this  I  can  state,  —  that  our  unceasing  warfare  has 
not  been  in  vain,  for  I  have,  during  the  past  summer, 
seen  only  single  ones  where  last  year  I  found  scores." 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES     209 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  quite  as  effectual  for  the  carpet 
beetle  as  it  is  for  the  bedbug  and  may  be  used  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  was  described  in  the  chapter  on  the 
latter  insect. 

The  fumes  of  sulfur  are  quite  as  effective  if  enough 
of  the  sulfur  is  burned  at  one  time.  Not  less  than  two 
pounds  to  a  thousand  cubic  feet  should  be  used.  The 
room  should  be  tightly  calked  and  closed  as  described 
in  the  chapter  on  the  bedbugs.  We  would  again  call 
attention  to  the  injury  that  may  result  from  sulfur  fumes 
to  metals,  wall  paper,  and  gilt  objects. 

As  we  have  pointed  out  the  larvae  tend  to  congregate 
mostly  about  the  edges  of  the  carpets.  It  is  said  that  a 
solution  of  sixty  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in 
a  pint  of  alcohol  and  applied  to  the  edges  and  undersides 
of  the  carpets  around  the  borders  will  poison  the  larvae 
when  they  begin  to  eat  the  fabric.  The  alcohol  quickly 
evaporates  and  leaves  the  corrosive  sublimate  among 
the  fibers  of  the  carpet  where  it  will  remain  a  long  time. 
Since  this  material  is  such  a  virulent  poison,  great  care 
must  be  exercised  in  regard  to  children  when  playing  about 
the  room  lest  they  get  hold  of  some  of  the  material  and 
become  poisoned. 

The  larvse  may  be  trapped  by  placing  woolen  cloths, 
especially  red  ones,  in  closets.  Among  these,  the  larvae 
will  congregate  and  may  be  caught  by  shaking  the  cloths 
once  a  week  over  a  piece  of  paper. 

Furs  and  woolens  may  be  stored  in  boxes  in  the  same 
manner  as  recommended  for  protection  against  clothes 
moths.  The  box  arranged  for  the  application  of  carbon 
bisulfide  serves  as  well  in  protecting  materials  from  the 
carpet  beetle  as  it  does  from  clothes  moths. 


210 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


THE   BLACK   CARPET   BEETLE 

Attagenus  piceus 

In  the  case  of  this  insect  (Fig.  61)  we  have  a  pest  with 
a  varied  menu  and  consequently  one  that  is  apt  to  be  found 
committing  a  different  kind  of  injury  in  different  surround- 
ings. For  example,  Hagen 
records  it  as  a  museum  pest 
in  the  insect  collection  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  as 
early  as  1878.  The  slender 
larva  persists  until  it  finds  a 
crack  or  slit  in  the  box  of 
specimens  and  then  enters  to 
feed  upon  the  dead  bodies  of 
the  insects,  thus  causing 
much  injury.  Again,  it  has 
been  caught  doing  damage 
in  flour  mills  and  is  some- 
what of  a  feeder  on  cereal 

products.  Moreover,  it  is  a  frequent  pest  in  feathers 
and  sometimes  causes  what  is  known  as  "felting"  in 
pillows.  The  short  branches  of  the  feathers  which  are 
stripped  off  by  the  larvae  in  their  feeding  activities 
become  firmly  stuck  into  the  cloth  and  form  a  close 
felting  all  over  the  inside  of  the  ticking.  Riley,  in 
a  case  observed  by  him,  says,  "The  felting  was  re- 
markably dense,  evenly  coating  the  whole  surface  of 
the  ticking  and  greatly  resembling  in  softness,  smooth- 
ness, and  color  the  fur  of  a  mole."  Finally,  Lintner 
found  the  larvae  of  this  beetle  in  company  with  the 


FIG.  61.  —  Black  carpet  beetle. 
(X  9.) 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CLOTHES  211 

"buffalo  moth"  about  the  edges  of  carpets  in  a  house  at 
Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1876.  He,  at  first,  supposed  it 
was  about  the  borders  of  the  carpet  in  search  of  dead  flies 
and  the  cast  skins  of  the  "buffalo  moth,"  but,  later,  he 
found  it  a  real  enemy  of  the  carpet  itself.  Since  that 
time,  this  insect  has  become  quite  a  noted  carpet  pest  in 
this  country.  It  has  become  more 
numerous  in  some  houses  than  the 
"buffalo  moth,"  and  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  Howard  says  it  has  be- 
come very  abundant  and  has  taken 
the  place  of  Anthrenus  scrophularioe. 
It  is  widespread  in  Europe  and  Asia 
and  has  been  in  the  United  States  for 
many  years. 

It  has  been  said  that  this  beetle  is 
not  so  fond  of  working  in    cracks   in 
floors    as    the    "  buffalo    moth,"    but 
many   of   the   larvse   of   these   beetles 
have   been   found   in  the  floor  cracks 
of    a    house    in    Ithaca,    New    York.  F™-  62.  — Larva  of 
They  apparently  bred   in   the   cracks      beetle.  a°(x  5°)"^ 
all   the  year  round.     The  cast  larval 
skins  and  living,  mature  larvae  were  found  in  January. 

Like  the  "  buffalo  moth,"  it  is  not  the  adult  that  commits 
the  injury,  but  it  is  the  larva  that  does  the  damage.  The 
larva  is  long  and  slender  and  tapers  toward  the  posterior 
end.  It  is  reddish-brown  in  color,  quite  active,  and  clothed 
with  hairs,  while  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  terminates 
in  a  pencil  of  long  hairs.  It  is  easily  distinguishable  from 
the  "buffalo  moth"  and  the  illustrations  should  enable 
any  one  to  tell  the  two  apart  (Fig.  62). 


212 


HOUSEHOLD    INSECTS 


The  adult  is  a  small,  blackish  beetle  only  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  about  twice  as  long 
as  wide  and  rather  flattened  (Fig.  61).  It  is  very  sober 
in  coloring  and  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  much 
gayer  colored  "buffalo  moth"  beetle. 

The  life  history  of  this  insect  is  not  well  known.  Its 
eggs  are  white,  of  a  broad,  oval  shape,  and  are  probably 
deposited  about  the  edges 
of  the  carpets  or  upon  the 
woolens  or  other  materials 
it  may  be  feeding  upon. 
Chittenden  has  met  with 
the  larvae  in  seeds  and 
other  vegetable  matter  and 
has  shown  that  they  will 
breed  successfully  from  the 
egg  in  flour  and  meal.  In 
his  studies  of  the  life  his- 
tory of  this  pest  he  found 
that  two  years  were  re- 
quired for  its  development 

from  egg  to  beetle.     The  pupal  stage  was  shown  to  last 
from  six  to  fifteen  days. 

We  have  had  the  adults  appearing  in  May  in  our  breed- 
ing jars  and  in  dwellings.  The  pupa?  (Fig.  63)  are  clothed 
with  a  coat  of  whitish  hairs  among  which  debris  becomes 
entangled,  the  whole  resembling  a  very  thin,  delicate 
cocoon.  On  the  dorsal  side  of  each  of  six  segments  of  the 
abdomen  there  is  a  brownish  eye-like  spot.  The  inner 
edges  of  the  spots  are  fringed  with  minute  teeth.  When 
the  pupa  is  stroked  with  a  needle  along  the  back,  these 
spots  contract  and  close  up.  The  larvae  of  the  black  car- 


FIG.  63.  —  Pupa  of  the  black  carpet 
beetle,  dorsal  and  ventral  view. 
(X  9.) 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES     213 

pet  beetle  are  certainly  active  throughout  the  winter  in 
well-heated  houses. 

Methods  of  control.  —  Since  the  habits  of  this  pest  are 
so  similar  to  those  of  the  "buffalo  moth,"  the  same  reme- 
dies may  be  applied  to  it. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CARPET  BEETLES 

1878.     -    —The  new  carpet  bug  (Anthrenus   scrophularice).     Ent. 

Contributions,  No.  4,  pp.  15-23. 
1878.     HAGEN,  H.  —  On  the  new  carpet  bug.     Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  X, 

pp.  161-163. 

1878.     Attagenus  megatoma  as  a  museum  pest.     Proc.  Bost. 

Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XX,  pp.  56-61. 

1879.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Attagenus  megatoma  feeding  on  carpets. 
Country  Gentleman,  xliv,  p.  503. 

1880.  RILEY,  C.  V.— Trapping  the  carpet  beetle.     The  Amer. 
Ent.,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  pp.  53-55. 

1882. Attagenus  megatoma  causes  felting.     Amer.  Nat.,  Vol. 

XVI,  p.  1018. 

1884.  DIMMOCK.  —  Attagenus  megatoma  causing  felting.     Cassino's 
Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  II,  p.  378. 

1885.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Attagenus  megatoma.     Second  Rept.,  Ins. 
N.Y.,  pp.  46-48. 

1889.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Some  insect  pests  of  the  household.     Insect 
Life,  Vol.  2,  pp.  127-130. 

1889.  FERNALD,  C.  H.  —  Household  Pests.  Bull.  5,  Mass.   (Hatch) 
Expt.  Stat. 

1890.  RILEY-HOWARD.  —  Feather  felting  by  dermestids.     Insect 
Life,  Vol.  2,  pp.  317-318. 

1890.     -  — Another  beetle   destructive   to   carpets.     Insect  Life, 
Vol.  3,  p.  65. 

1892.     Abundance  of  Attagenus  piceus  in  Illinois.     Insect  Life, 

Vol.  4,  p.  345. 

1893.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Two  carpet  beetles.    Ninth  Rept.,  Ins. 
N.Y.,  pp.  299-306. 

1896.     The  carpet    beetle.     Eleventh    Rept.,  Ins.  N.Y.,  pp. 

172-174. 


214  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

1895.  FLETCHER,  JAMES.  —  Household  pests.     Kept,  of  the  Ent. 
and  Bot.,  Canada  Dept.  Agri.,  1895,  p.  165. 

1896.  HOWARD,  L.  O. — The  principal  household  insects  of  the 
United  States.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  58-63. 

1897.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Some  little-known  insects  affecting 
stored  vegetable  products.     Bull.  8,  n.s,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.,    pp.    15-19. 

1902.    WASHBURN,  F.  L.  — Carpet  beetles,  etc.    Bull.  77,  Minn. 
State  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  56. 

1904.  SLINGERLAND,  M.  V.  —  The  carpet  beetle.     Circ.  10,  Cor- 
nell Reading-course  for  Farmers'  Wives. 

1905.  FLETCHER,    JAMES.  —  The    buffalo    carpet    beetle.      Can. 
Ent.,  Vol.  37,  p.  333. 

1906.  WASHBURN,  F.  L.  —  Carpet  beetles,  "buffalo  bug,"  "buffalo 
moth."     Eleventh  Kept,  of  the  Minn.  State  Ent.,  p.  69. 

1906.     LOCHHEAD,  WM.  —  Household  insects.     Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  38, 

p.  67. 
1908.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  carpet  beetle  or  "Buffalo  moth." 

Circ.  5,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 
For  further  bibliography  see  Lintner,  Ninth  Report. 


FISH-MOTHS 

Lepisma  saccharina 

In  taking  from  a  shelf  a  book  that  has  remained  undis- 
turbed for  some  time,  we  often  catch  a  glimpse  of  a  glis- 
tening or  silver  gray  insect  (Fig.  64)  that  glides  quickly  out 
of  sight.  In  fact,  this  insect  is  an  adept  at  dodging  and 
when  actually  in  contact  with  the  fingers,  the  slick,  shining 
body  easily  slips  from  the  grasp.  It  is  not  a  moth  nor  is  it 
closely  related  to  a  moth  nor  does  it  remotely  resemble  a 
moth  in  general  appearance  or  habits.  Its  body  is  clothed 
with  shining  scales  like  that  of  a  fish  and  some  person  who 
had  caught  it  injuring  clothes  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
larva  of  a  clothes  moth  combined  the  character  with  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES     215 

habit  and  thereupon  dubbed  it  a  fish-moth.  It  is  quite 
common  to  call  any  insect  found  injuring  household  effects 
a  moth,  even  though  it  is  far  removed  from  the  group  of 
insects  containing  the  moths  and  butterflies.  The  glis- 
tening body  of  the  fish-moth,  its  quick,  gliding  movements, 
and  its  ability  to  appear  and  as  quickly  and  mysteriously 
disappear  have  resulted  in  its  having  received  a  number  of 
names  in  different  localities.  It  is  variously 
known  as  the  silver-fish,  silver-witch,  sugar- 
louse,  sugar-fish,  wood-fish,  and  bristle-tail. 
Food  and  injuries  of  the  fish-moth.  —  It 
is  still  a  question  whether  this  insect  lives 
mostly  upon  vegetable  or  animal  products, 
or,  at  a  pinch,  upon  both.  It  is  commonly 
said  that  the  fish-moth  lives  upon  vegetable 
matter,  mainly  upon  starch  and  sugar.  In 
proof  of  this,  the  injuries  to  laundered 
clothes,  bindings  of  books,  wall  paper,  and 
similar  materials  are  cited.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  insect  attacks  these  objects 
to  get  at  the  starch  or  paste  in  them.  Not 
long  ago  we  received  a  letter  from  a  care- 
ful  housekeeper,  accompanied  by  several 
specimens  of  this  insect,  saying  that  they  were  seriously 
injuring  the  curtains  hung  at  the  windows  of  a  room 
very  little  used.  These  curtains  had  supposedly  been 
starched,  although  the  letter  was  not  specific  on  this 
point.  At  any  rate,  something  in  the  curtains  other 
than  the  fiber,  probably  the  starchy  material,  had  proved 
attractive  as  a  source  of  food  to  the  fish-moths  and  the  in- 
juries followed.  In  this  connection,  M.  de  Rossi  says  that 
muslin  curtains  are  sometimes  perforated  by  fish-moths. 


216  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

On  the  other  hand,  Garman  says  he  has  become  con- 
vinced that  these  insects  feed  upon  animal  matter  and 
cites  an  instance  of  some  velox  photographic  prints  from 
which  the  film  had  been  removed  by  them  in  patches  while 
the  starch  used  in  mounting  the  prints  had  remained  un- 
touched. In  attempting  to  catch  the  depredators,  baits 
of  starch  and  sugar,  both  moist  and  dry,  were  set  for  them, 
but  not  the  slightest  attention  was  given  to  these  food 
products  by  the  insects.  On  the  other  hand,  bits  of  white 
glue  alone  and  dusted  with  Paris  green,  when  placed  about, 
were  readily  devoured  by  the  pests.  Moreover,  the  dead 
bodies  of  fish-moths  were  eagerly  eaten  by  their  living 
comrades.  Taking  these  observations,  as  a  whole, 
Garman  is  inclined  to  believe  that  these  insects  have  a 
fondness  for  animal  food  and  that  they  attack  book  bind- 
ings, gummed  labels,  and  so  on,  mainly,  for  the  animal 
matter  contained  in  the  glue  on  them.  It  must  be  stated, 
however,  that  the  great  majority  of  writers  on  these  insects 
hold  that  they  eat  vegetable  matter  and  they  certainly  do, 
at  times. 

Hagen  brings  together  considerable  evidence  to  prove 
that  Lepisma  shows  a  decided  taste  for  starchy  matter. 
He  says,  "If  we  tabulate  all  the  facts,  we  find  directly  that 
all  damage,  except  those  to  paper  and  its  combinations, 
have  been  inflicted  on  silks,  clothing,  and  muslin  curtains 
which  were  invariably  starched  or  finished  with  some 
stiffening  size,  making  them  more  easily  eaten  or  eroded. 
Secondly,  the  backs  of  books  may  have  been  more  or  less 
seriously  injured.  But  just -here  paste  had  been  used  in 
quantity." 

Book  bindings  are  often  badly  scarred  and  scraped  by 
these  insects  in  their  efforts  to  obtain  the  included  glue  or 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES     217 

paste.  Even  the  gold  lettering  on  volumes  has  been 
eaten  to  get  at  the  sizing  beneath,  and  gummed  labels  used 
in  museums  and  on  books  in  libraries  are  often  destroyed 
by  them.  Heavily  glazed  paper  offers  an  attractive  source 
of  food  to  these  insects  and  books  made  of  such  paper 
often  have  their  leaves  badly  scraped  and  scarred.  Wall 
paper  is  sometimes  attacked  by  fish-moths  and  the  starch 
so  eaten  up  over  a  large  area  that  the  paper  breaks  loose 
from  the  walls.  Starched  collars,  cuffs,  and  shirts,  espe- 
cially when  laid  away  for  a  long  time,  are  apt  to  suffer  injury. 
Silk  garments  and  silken  tapestries  have  been  injured 
occasionally,  due,  probably,  to  the  material  used  in  them 
for  stiffening.  In  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Cambridge,  700  labels  on  a  collection  of  Paleontological 
specimens  were  all  injured  by  fish-moths.  Many  of  these 
were  eaten  enough  to  obliterate  the  writing  and  riddle  the 
paper  with  holes.  All  of  them  had  to  be  rewritten.  The 
injury  in  this  particular  case,  however,  was  ascribed  to 
another  species  (Lepisma  domestica).  In  such  cases  the 
loss  is  considerable  and  might  be  very  serious  if  the  labels 
on  rare  specimens  became  so  defaced  that  the  records 
could  not  be  made  out.  Undoubtedly  these  insects  do 
eat  paper,  when  driven  to  it,  for  when  S.  Henshaw 
inclosed  some  of  the  fish-moths  in  a  jar  with  only  paper 
they  readily  ate  holes  in  it.  It  is  recorded  that  some 
books  kept  in  a  safe  were  attacked  by  a  species  of  Lepisma. 
Occasionally  vegetable  drugs  or  similar  materials  are 
damaged  by  fish-moths. 

Description  of  the  insect.  —  The  fish-moth  is  a  member 
of  the  lowest  and  simplest  group  pf  insects.  It  has  no 
wings  and  its  body  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length, 
tapers  gradually  from  the  head  to  the  posterior  extremity, 


218  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

and  is  covered  with  minute  silvery  scales.  On  account  of 
the  covering  of  scales,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  catch  an 
individual  without  crushing  or  greatly  damaging  it.  As 
one  correspondent  said,  "I  have  never  been  able  to  get 
one,  as  they  are  extremely  quick  in  motion  and  when  killed 
are  crushed."  Like  all  other  insects  it  has  six  legs  which, 
although  not  abnormally  long,  yet  are  powerful  and 
enable  it  to  run  very  swiftly  for  so  small  an  animal.  The 
two  "feelers,"  or  antenna?,  are  very  long,  slender,  and 
conspicuous.  Moreover,  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body 
are  three,  long,  slender,  bristle-shaped  projections,  the 
middle  one  extending  straight  backward  and  the  other 
two  extending  to  the  right  and  left  at  considerable  angles. 
It  has  biting  mouth-parts  consisting  of  two  pairs  of 
jaws. 

One  of  the  earliest  notices  of  this  insect  occurs  in  a  book 
called  "  Micrographia, "  written  by  R.  Hooke,  and  pub- 
lished in  London  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1665.  The 
following  quaint  description  of  the  fish-moth  is  given : 
"  It  is  a  small  white  Silver-shining  Worm  or  Moth,  which  I 
found  much  conversant  among  Books  and  Papers,  and  is 
suppos'd  to  be  that  which  corrodes  and  eats  holes  through 
leaves  and  covers;  it  appears  to  the  naked  eye  a  small 
glittering  Pearl-coloured  Moth,  which,  upon  the  removing 
of  Books  and  Papers  in  the  Summer,  is  often  observ'd 
very  nimbly  to  scud,  and  pack  away  to  some  lurking 
cranney,  where  it  may  the  better  protect  itself  from  any 
appearing  dangers.  Its  head  appears  big  and  blunt  and 
its  body  tapers  from  it  towards  the  tail  smaller  and  smaller, 
being  shap'd  almost  like  a  carrot."  Although  we  think  of 
this  as  a  rather  crude  description,  yet  it  is  sufficiently  clear 
to  enable  us  to  recognize  the  insect  under  discussion  and, 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES     219 

at  the  same  time,  shows  what  a  long  standing  pest  it  is. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  life  history. 

There  is  another  species  of  fish-moth  present  in  this 
country,  but  not  so  well  known  to  housekeepers.  It  was 
described  by  Packard  in  1873  in  a  paper  on  the  Thysanura  of 
Essex  County,  Massachusetts.  He  called  it  Lepisma  domes- 
tica  and  said  it  was  common  in  houses  of  Salem  about  hearths 
and  fireplaces,  in  warm  and  dry  / 

situations,  eating  sugar,  and 
other  foods.  He  described  it  as 
having  a  broad  body,  pearly 
white,  with  a  dense  coat  of 
scales  and  mottled  with  dark 
spots  (Fig.  65).  The  same 
species,  evidently,  exists  in  Eng- 
land and  it  has  since  been  named 
Thermobia  funiorum.  Both  of 
these  names  refer  to  its  heat- 
loving  propensities.  It  seems 
to  be  abundant  in  bakeshops 
about  the  ovens  where  the  heat 

,,  ,    ,  FIG.  65.  — The  domestic  fish- 

would  appear  too  great  for  any  moth,    (x  i£). 

insect    to    withstand.      It    also 

occurs  about  fireplaces  and  ranges  in  dwellings  and  runs 
over  hot  bricks  and  metal  with  apparent  impunity. 
In  England,  on  account  of .  its  habits,  it  is  called  the 
"  firebrat." 

A  Dutch  entomologist,  Oudemans,  who  has  given  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  group  of  insects  to  which  the 
fish-moths  belong,  says  that  he  finds  this  heat-loving 
species  in  all  bakeshops  in  Amsterdam  that  he  has  investi- 
gated and  adds,  that  it  is  well  known  to  the  bakers. 


220  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Marlatt  says  that  it  is  very  abundant  in  Washington  City. 
Dean  s*ays  that  this  species  has  often  been  observed  in 
mills  in  Kansas. 

This  species  resembles  the  more  common  fish-moth  in 
general  appearance.  It  is  usually  larger,  the  body  being 
about  one-half  inch  in  length.  As  pointed  out  before, 
the  back  of  the  insect  is  mottled  with  dark  spots,  by 
which  it  may  be  readily  told  from  the  first  species 
discussed.  Then,  again,  its  habits  are  quite  distinct  and 
characteristic. 

Methods  of  control.  —  Usually  books  stored  in  moist 
basements  or  other  damp  rooms  are  most  injured.  This, 
of  course,  suggests  airy,  dry  rooms  for  the  storage  of  books 
or  valuable  papers  if  one  wishes  to  preserve  them  free 
from  injury  by  the  fish-moth. 

Another  common  method  of  preventing  injury  to  books 
and  papers  by  these  insects  is  by  the  frequent  use  of 
buhach.  The  fresh  buhach  should  be  sprinkled  freely  on 
the  shelves  and  about  on  the  books  themselves.  More- 
over, this  treatment  should  be  given  frequently  where 
these  pests  are  abundant  and  persistent  because  the  pow- 
der so  soon  loses  its  strength.  In  houses  badly  infested, 
starched  clothes,  stiffened  silks,  and  similar  fabrics  should 
not  be  allowed  to  rest  too  long  packed  away  in  drawers  or 
loose  in  chests  or  boxes. 

It  is  customary  among  librarians  to  poison  sweetened 
paste  with  white  arsenic,  spread  the  mixture  on  pieces  of 
cardboard,  and  slip  them  about  on  shelves  among  the  in- 
fested books  as  baits  for  the  fish-moths.  In  the  light  of 
Garman's  experiments,  it  would  seem  that  a  like  method  of 
procedure  in  which  glue  is  substituted  for  the  starchy 
matter  might  succeed  better  in  killing  the  pests.  These 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHES  221 

pieces  of  cardboard  might  be  used  to  place  about  among 
garments  or  other  stored  fabrics  if  injury  by  the  fish-moths 
is  anticipated. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  FISH-MOTHS 

1886.     HAGEN,  H.  A.  —  On  a  new  library  pest.    Cand.  Ent,  Vol. 

XVIII,  pp.  221-230. 
1886.     JACKSON,  R.  T.  —  A  new  museum  pest.     Science,  Vol.  VII, 

May  28,  p.  481. 
1890.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  The  skein  centipede  and  silver  fish.     Insect 

Life,  Vol.  2,  p.  315. 
1893.     GARMAN,  SAMUEL.  —  The  ravages  of  bookworms.    Science, 

Vol.  XXI,  March  24,  p.  158. 

1896.    BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Household  insects,  pp.  314-324. 
1898.     FELT,  E.  P.  —  Lepisma  domestica  Pack.      14th  Rept.  of  the 

N.  Y.  State  Ent.,  pp.  216,  218. 

1901.  HOWARD,    L.    O. — Family    Lepismatidse.      Insect    Book, 
p.  382. 

1902.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  silver  fish.    Circ.  49,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

1903.  HOULBERT,  G.  —  Les  insectes  ennemis  des  livres,  p.  155. 
1906.     GARMAN,   H.  —  Does   the   silver-fish    (Lepisma  saccharina) 

feed  on  starch  and  sugar  ?     Bull.   60,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.,  p.  174. 

1906.  WASHBURN,    F.    L.  —  Silver-fish,    "fish-moth."     Eleventh 
Ann.  Rept.  of  the  State  Ent.  of  Minn.,  p.  71. 

1907.  SMITH,  JOHN  B.  —  Some  household  insects.    Bull.  203,  N.  J. 
Expt.  Stat,  p.  42. 

1913.    DEAN,   GEO.   A.  —  Mill   and   stored-grain    insects.     Bull. 
189,  Kan.  State  Agri.  Expt.  Stat.  p.  235. 


CRICKETS 

Gryllus  domesticus  et  al. 

The  following  interesting    letters    give    the    different 
phases  of  annoyance  from  crickets  frequenting  dwelling- 


222  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

houses.  The  first  correspondent  writes  as  follows  :  "  I  am 
writing  to  ask  how  to  kill  crickets.  The  house  is  built 
almost  level  with  the  ground  and  crickets  have  been  able 
to  get  in  the  French  windows,  go  up  stairs  on  the  rough 
plaster  walls,  and  get  into  all  the  cracks  in  the  woodwork. 
During  August  and  September  of  last  year  I  killed  thirty 
or  forty  crickets  a  day  as  they  bred  in  the  walls  and  I 
feared  they  would  eat  clothing  if  left  to  themselves.  Also 
they  kept  us1  awake  at  night." 

The  second  correspondent  gives  another  and  more 
serious  phase  of  annoyance  from  crickets.  She  says  :  "  We 
will  be  very  glad  to  have  you  tell  us  how  we  may  rid  our 
house  of  the  common  black  crickets.  They  get  into  the 
closets  in  some  unaccountable  way  and  destroy  the  cloth- 
ing, both  linen  and  woolen.  After  destroying  every  one 
of  them  in  the  morning  we  go  into  the  closets  in  the  after- 
noon to  find  as  many  more  as  formerly.  They  seem  to 
eat  holes  very  similar  to  the  moth." 

To  many  householders,  the  presence  of  a  "  cricket  on  the 
hearth  "  is  a  source  of  pleasure,  and  in  Spain  it  is  said  that 
crickets  are  sometimes  kept  in  cages  much  as  we  keep 
canary  birds.  One  might  be  quite  ready  to  agree  with  the 
first  correspondent,  however,  that  a  multitude  of  crickets 
with  their  peculiar  chirpings  could  become  anything  but  a 
delight,  especially  at  night.  Again,  the  common  black 
cricket,  as  the  second  correspondent  writes,  often  causes 
serious  injury  to  clothing.  Lintner  records  an  interesting 
instance  of  this  in  the  case  of  a  common  black  cricket. 
He  says,  "Wm.  B.  Marshall  of  the  New  York  State 
Museum  at  Albany,  reports  during  a  sojourn  at  Cape  May, 
New  Jersey,  in  the  month  of  July  last,  that  a  suit  of  clothes 
belonging  to  a  friend  which  had  just  been  received  from  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO   CLOTHES  223 

tailor  and  was  hanging  over  a  chair  was  completely  ruined 
in  a  single  night  by  crickets  that  had  entered  through  open 
windows  and  eaten  large  holes  in  the  garments."  Lintner 
identified  the  crickets  as  Gryllus  luctuosus,  a  common 
black  species. 

Crickets  hibernate  as  adults  through  the  winter  and,  of 
course,  seek  warm  protected  places  in  which  to  hide. 
Very  often  in  the  fall,  as  the  nights  grow  cold,  they  enter 
dwelling-houses,  especially  those  that  may  be  temporarily 
unoccupied.  Here  they  often  attack  woolen  clothing 
hanging  in  closets  and  cause  serious  injury  by  eating  the 
garments  full  of  holes.  When  the  occupants  return  and 
start  the  fires  they  often  find  the  house  full  of  these  noisy 
and  rather  unwelcome  guests. 

The  crickets  with  which  American  residents  are  probably 
most  familiar  are  individuals  of  the  common  blackish  or 
brownish-black  species  present  everywhere.  These  are 
not  true  house  crickets,  for  they  live  in  the  fields  and  do 
not  breed  in  houses  so  far  as  is  known.  The  domestic 
cricket  is  a  European  insect,  but  it  was  probably  intro- 
duced into  this  country  very  early  in  its  history.  It  is 
evidently  quite  widely  distributed  in  America,  although  it 
cannot  be  said  to  be  common  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
much  more  common  in  Canada. 

The  house  cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus)  is  of  a  pale  brown 
color  throughout  (Fig.  66).  It  frequents  more  commonly 
the  ground  floors  of  houses  and  ensconces  itself  about  the 
chimney,  where  there  is  sufficient  warmth.  Because  of 
the  warmth  and  food  in  bakeries  it  is  often  found  in  these 
shops.  Like  other  crickets,  it  is  mainly  nocturnal  in 
habits,  waiting  until  the  dusk  of  evening  before  beginning 
its  activities  in  hunting  food  and  chirping  its  love  song. 


224 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


Very  little  seems  to  be  known  regarding  its  actual  life 
history,  but  as  all  sizes  are  found  in  houses  ft  is  inferred 
that  the  eggs  are  laid  in  dwellings  and  that  the  whole  life 
history  may  be  passed  in  the  house.  In  summer,  in 
Europe  at  least,  it  is  often  found  out-of-doors  about  hedges 
and  in  gardens,  but  it  returns 
to  the  houses  for  warmth  in 
the  fall. 

There  are  certain  supersti- 
tions connected  with  crickets 
that  cause  them  to  become 
objects  of  considerable  interest 
and  to  be  looked  upon  by 
some  as  harbingers  of  good  or 
evil.  To  many,  their  chirping 
is  an  omen  of  good  cheer, 
while  in  others  it  induces 
sadness  and  melancholy.  To 
many  people  the  out-door 
crickets,  in  the  autumn,  seem 
to  be  voicing  the  dying  of  the 
year.  There  is  also  a  curious 
superstition  that  if  one  kills  a 

cricket,  its  relatives  will  hunt  out  the  garments  of  the 
enemy  and  riddle  them  with  holes. 

Only  the  male  crickets  are  musical,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
watch  them  produce  their  song.  If  one  of  the  males  of  the 
common  field  crickets  is  brought  into  the- house  in  the  fall 
and  placed  in  a  glass  jar  with  a  few  pieces  of  bread  crumbs 
for  food,  it  will  soon  come  to  feel  at  home  and  will  sing  its 
song  without  fear  or  trepidation.  The  chirping  noise  of 
the  cricket  is  produced  by  the  upper  pair  of  wings  that 


FIG 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CLOTHES  225 

bear  special  structures  for  the  purpose  and  are  put  into 
rapid  motion,  as  we  shall  see.  The  large  vein  that  runs 
diagonally  across  each  of  the  upper  wings  near  their  bases 
is  crossed  with  many  file-like  ridges.  Also,  not  far  from 
the  tip  of  each  wing  along  the  inner  margin  is  a  hardened 
membranous  portion  which  may  be  called  the  scraper  or 
drum.  Thus  each  of  the  upper  wings  is  furnished  with  a 
file  and  a  scraper.  When  the  cricket  desires  to  make  his 
chirping  song,  he  elevates  these  wings  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees  and  holds  them  so  that  the  scraper  of 
one  rests  upon  the  file  of  the  other.  He  then  moves  the 
wings  very  fast  from  side  to  side,  rasping  the  scraper  of  each 
wing  with  the  file  of  the  other.  This  movement  throws 
the  wings  into  vibration  and  produces  the  chirping  sound. 
Since  the  cricket  can  make  sounds,  we  would  have  a  right 
to  infer  that  it  is  endowed  with  the  sense  of  hearing.  Cu- 
riously enough,  there  is  an  oval  transparent  disk  on  each  of 
the  fore  legs  that  undoubtedly  serves  as  an  ear  or  organ 
for  perceiving  sound. 

Methods  of  control.  —  Crickets  are  very  fond  of  certain 
liquids  like  beer  and  sweetened  vinegar.  It  is  said  that  their 
extreme  fondness  for  these  liquids  literally  drives  them  to 
drink ;  for  if  deep  glass  vessels  are  half  filled  with  a  favorite 
liquid  and  placed  where  the  insects  can  easily  get  into  them, 
they  can  be  trapped  and  drowned  in  great  numbers.  The 
author  has  never  had  an  opportunity  to  try  this  method 
of  catching  crickets,  but  it  is  given  on  excellent  authority. 

They  may  also  be  killed  by  poisoning  pieces  of  fresh 
carrots,  parsnips,  or  potatoes  with  arsenic  and  placing 
them  about  where  the  crickets  will  easily  find  them.  Of 
course  great  pains  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  bait 
where  children  can  get  hold  of  it. 


226  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CRICKETS 

1893.     LINTNER,    J.    A.  —  The    common    black    cricket.     Eighth 

Kept.  N.  Y.  Ins.,  p.  179. 
1895.     SHARP,  DAVID.  —  Cambridge  natural  history,  Vol.  5,  p.  330. 

1895.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual  for  the  study  of  insects,  p.  115. 

1896.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 
United  States.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  52. 

1896.     BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Our  household  insects,  p.  147. 
1905.     KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  American  insects,  p.  157. 


CHAPTER  X 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS    TO  CEREALS   AND   PRESERVED 
FRUITS 

CEREALS,  like  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  rice  and  their 
products  together  with  preserved  fruits,  both  in  the  dried, 
and  liquid  form,  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  several 
species  of  insects.  The  principal  offenders  are  the  larvae 
of  beetles  and  moths,  but  the  maggots  of  certain  flies  are 
often  injurious  to  preserved  fruits.  Most  of  these  pests 
are  inhabitants,  primarily,  of  granaries,  storehouses, 
and  mills  from  which  they  find  their  way  into  the  house- 
hold by  being  brought  in  with  food-stuffs. 

THE-  DARKER  MEAL-WORM 

Tenebrio  obscurus 

'  There  are  two  species  of  beetle  larvae,  called  meal- 
worms, that  work  in  meal,  flour,  and  other  cereals.  They 
are  very  much  alike  in  general  appearance.  The  one 
under  consideration  has  been  called  by  many  writers  the 
American  meal-worm.  There  is  no  valid  reason  for  calling 
it  an  American  insect  because  it  is  undoubtedly  of  Euro- 
pean origin.  We  are,  therefore,  calling  it  the  darker  meal- 
worm, thus  varying  slightly  from  Chittenden,  who  has 
already  written  of  it  as  the  dark  meal-worm. 

Distribution   and    food.  —  The   darker   meal-worm   is 
certainly  widely  distributed  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 
227 


228  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  larvse  and  pupae  of  both  species  of  meal-worms  are  used 
for  bird  food  and  are  grown  in  quantity  by  bird  supply 
houses.  The  beetles  will  increase  readily  and  rapidly 
when  placed  with  a  supply  of  bran  or  meal. 

The  larvse  are  found  in  granaries,  storehouses,  bake- 
shops,  barns,  dwrelling-houses,  and  grocery  stores.  The 
author  has  found  them  in  numbers  in  oat  bins.  The 
larva?  eat  meal,  flour,  bread,  cake,  and  cereals. 

Since  they  so  frequently  occur  in  mills,  they  are  un- 
doubtedly ground  up  with  meal  and  we  probably  eat  the 
remains  greatly  diluted.  However,  none  of  us  seem  to  be 
any  worse  for  it  and  we  trust  that  no  one  will  be  deterred 
from  eating  and  enjoying  all  forms  of  corn-meal  products. 

Appearance  of  the  beetle  and  "worms."  —  The  beetle 
is  dull  black,  often  reddish-black  and  about  one-half  inch 
long.  Running  lengthwise  of  the  wing-covers  on  the  back 
are  sixteen  deep  furrows  plainly  visible  to  the  eye.  The 
antennas  are  conspicuous,  although  not  long,  and  look  like 
a  string  of  black  beads  (Plate  III) .  In  this  species  the  third 
segment  of  each  antenna  is  noticeably  longer  than  the  cor- 
responding segment  in  the  beetle  of  the  yellow  meal-worm. 

The  larva?  of  meal-worms  are  long,  slender,  and  cylin- 
drical. The  skin  is  evidently  heavily  chitinized  and 
therefore  rather  hard.  The  meal-worms  are  about  one 
inch  long,  yellow  in  color,  but  shading  off  into  yellowish- 
brown  at  either  end  and  at  the  joining  of  the  segments. 
The  posterior  segment  of  the  abdomen  ends  in  two  minute 
dark-colored  spines.  They  are  furnished  with  three  pairs 
of  very  serviceable  legs,  which  enable  them  to  travel  quite 
fast  unless  they  are  on  a  polished  surface. 

When  the  larva  attains  its  growth  it  changes  to  the  pupa. 
The  pupa  is  whitish  in  color  and  about  five-eighths  of  an 


PLATE   III 


^p    :-•//' 

i^^yS/-' 

•>•*;*  -Ci>'. ' 


Beetle  of  darker  meal-worm  (X  3)  and  pupa  (X  2^) ;  pupae  and  larva  of 
meal-worm  (XI);  yeast  cake  injured  by  drug-store  beetle. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS  229 

inch  long.  The  abdominal  segments  have  curious  fringed 
expansions  on  each  edge  and  the  last  segment  of  the 
abdomen  terminates  in  two  spines,  sharp  and  dark-colored 
at  the  tips  (Plate  III). 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  darker  meal-worm  may  be 
controlled  by  the  same  methods  as  the  yellow  meal-worm. 

THE   YELLOW  MEAL-WORM 

Tenebrio   molitor 

The  larva  of  this  beetle  is  much  like  that  of  the  darker 
one  just  described  in  size,  shape,  and  general  appearance 
except  that  it  is  lighter  in  color.  The  larva  is  about  one 
inch  in  length,  cylindrical  in  shape  with  hardened  shining 
skin,  much  resembling  a  wireworm  in  appearance.  It  is 
yellowish  in  color,  shading  to  a  darker  tinge  at  each  end 
and  at  the  joining  of  the  segments.  The  last  segment  of 
the  larva  terminates  in  two  small  spines,  although  West- 
wood  and  Packard  describe  it  as  having  but  one  spine. 

The  beetle  closely  resembles  Tenebrio  obscurus  in  shape 
and  general  appearance.  The  color,  however,  of  this 
beetle  is  shining  black,  while  Tenebrio  obscurus  is  of  a  dead 
opaque  black. 

The  white  eggs  of  the  beetle  are  deposited  among  the 
meal  or  cereal  upon  which  the  larvae  are  expected  to  feed. 
The  eggs  are  covered  with  a  sticky  material  and  the  par- 
ticles of  meal  adhere  to  them.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are 
laid  singly  and  sometimes  in  bunches.  In  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  or  more,  depending  upon  the  temperature,  the 
eggs  hatch  and  the  tiny  white  meal-worms  appear.  They 
begin  to  feed  at  once  and  soon  take  on  their  yellowish, 
glossy  appearance.  The  larvae  take  a  considerable  period 


230  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

for  their  growth,  three  months  or  longer.  The  pupal  stage 
lasts  about  two  weeks.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
beetles  appear  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  but  where  the  meal- 
worms are  being  reared  in  the  house  the  adults  are  appear- 
ing at  any  and  all  times.  Normally,  there  seems  to  be  but 
one  generation  a  year. 

The  yellow  meal-worm  is  a  common  species  in  the  Old 
World,  but  it  has  been  widely  distributed  over  the  earth 
through  the  activities  of  commerce.  It  was  purposely 
introduced  into  Chili  to  furnish  food  for  domestic  birds. 

The  larvae  of  this  beetle  are  found  in  corn-meal  and  flour 
the  world  over,  where  they  can  be  made  to  breed  almost 
indefinitely.  There  are  on  record  several  instances  in 
which  these  larvae  have  evidently  been  swallowed  by 
people  while  eating  corn-meal  mush,  or  other  materials  in 
which  the  larvae  live.  It  is  hard  to  see  how  the  larvae 
withstand  the  heat  generated  in  cooking  the  food.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  person  eating  the  food  must  necessa- 
rily swallow  it  with  very  little  mastication  in  order  for  the 
larvae  to  enter  the  stomach  whole,  as  without  doubt  they 
sometimes  have. 

An  interesting  case  is  related  in  Insect  Life  in  which  two 
of  these  larvae  were  ejected  from  the  stomach  of  a  woman. 
Evidently  the  movements  of  the  larvae  in  the  stomach 
had  caused  nausea  and  finally  vomiting. 

An  interesting  and  rather  humorous  account  of  the 
occurrence  of  this  beetle  in  a  pincushion  on  the  dresser  of  a 
hotel  bedroom  has  come  down  to  us  also  through  Insect 
Life.  A  guest,  who  had  occupied  the  bedroom,  com- 
plained in  the  morning  to  his  host  that  the  room  was 
haunted.  The  host,  of  course,  pooh-poohed  the  idea,  but 
the  occupant  persisted  in  his  story  and  related  how  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS  231 

bogies  had  plagued  him.  He  said  they  were  around  the 
dresser  and  had  kept  him  awake  most  of  the  night  by  the 
incessant  scratching  sounds  produced  somewhere  about 
the  furniture.  Investigation  showed  that  the  scratching 
noises  were  present  and  were  evidently  issuing  from  a  large 
pincushion  lying  on  the  dresser.  When  opened  and  the 
filling,  composed  of  coarse  shorts  used  as  a  food  for  horses, 
had  been  shaken  out,  several  large  black  beetles  of  this 
species  appeared  among  the  grain.  Evidently  some  of  the 
larvse  or  beetles  had  been  inclosed  with  the  shorts  and 
had  been  breeding  in  the  meantime  within  the  cushion. 
The  grain  had  served  as  food  for  them. 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  most  practicable  remedy  is 
fumigation  with  carbon  bisulfide,  especially  in  granaries 
and  meal  bins.  If  meal  or  flour  becomes  infested  in  the 
house,  it  can  be  placed  in  a  tight  box  or  barrel  and  fumi- 
gated. After  fumigation,  the  meal  or  flour  should  be 
carefully  sifted  in  order  to  remove  the  dead  bodie's  of  the 
insects.  As  in  other  cases  already  recommended,  the 
carbon  bisulfide  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds 
to  1000  cubic  feet  of  space.  Half  a  teacupful  should  be 
ample  for  50  pounds  of  meal  or  flour  if  the  fumigation  is 
done  in  a  small  tight  box  or  barrel. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  thoroughly  clean  the  box  or  bin 
before  putting  in  a  new  supply  of  flour. 


REFERENCES  TO  LITERATURE  ON  THE  MEAL-WORMS 
Tenebrio  molitor 

1889.     RILEY,  C.  V.,  and  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Larvae  of    Tenebrio 

molitor  in  a  woman's  stomach.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  pp.  379-380. 

1889. Beetles  in  a  pincushion.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  2,  p.  148. 


232  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

1893.    LINTNEK,  J.  A.  —  Tenebrio  molitor.     Eighth  Kept.  Ins.  of 

N.Y.,  pp.  176-177. 
1896.    CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

United  States.    Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  116-117. 

Tenebrio  obscurus 

1893.     LINTNEE,  J.  A.  —  The  American  meal-worm.     Ninth  Rept. 

Ins.  N.Y.,  pp.  307-308. 
1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  117-118. 
See  Lintner's  Ninth  Rept.  for  further  bibliography. 


THE   CADELLE 

Tenebroides  mauritanicus 

The  Cadelle  is  more  particularly  a  stored-grain  insect 
than  a  household  pest.  It  and  its  larvae  are  frequent 
occupants  of  granaries,  mills,  and 
storehouses  and  from  these  often 
find  their  way  into  households  in 
cereals  and  other  food  products. 
Many  years  ago  the  French  applied 
the  name  "Cadelle"  to  this  beetle 
and  it  has  been  known  under  this 
name  ever  since.  The  Germans 
often  term  it  the  bread  beetle.  It  is 
of  world-wide  distribution  although 

r  IG.  u/. —  inc  L^aaetic.  0 

(x  4.)  Chittenden  remarks  that   '  there   is 

every   reason    to    believe    that    this 
insect  is  of  American  nativity." 

The  adult  insect  is  a  dark,  shining-brown  beetle  about 
f  of  an  inch  in  length  (Fig.  67).  It  is  therefore  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  meal-worm  beetles,  but  much  larger  than 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS 


233 


the  confused  flour  beetle.  The  head  and  thorax  are  finely 
punctate  and  the  wing  covers  are  longitudinally  ridged. 
The  prothorax  and  head  are  distinctly  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  body,  as  shown  in  Fig.  67.  The  larva,  shown 
in  Fig.  68,  is  whitish  or  flesh-colored  and  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown.  The  head, 
prothorax,  and  tip  of  the  abdomen  are  dark  reddish-brown. 
The  last  two  segments  of  the  thorax 
are  also  usually  brownish.  The  end 
of  the  abdomen  bears  two  dark 
corneous  hooks.  Altogether  the  larva 
is  quite  formidable  in  appearance, 
although  it  is  perfectly  harmless. 
The  pupa  is  white  and,  as  we  describe 
later,  is  formed  in  a  cell  burrowed  out 
in  soft  wood,  at  least  when  the  wood 
is  available. 

There  has  been  considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  whether  this 
insect  lived  upon  plant  food  or  upon 
other  insects  and  small  animals. 
There  is  no  doubt  about  its  being 
herbivorous,  for  it  has  been  proven 
again  and  again  that  it  feeds  upon 
various  grains.  Chittenden  says  he  has  proven  through 
experiments  that  it  is  also  predaceous. 

Some  years  ago  several  specimens  of  the  adult  beetles 
and  larvae  were  sent  to  this  department  by  a  correspondent 
in  Ohio.  They  were  infesting  wheat  in  a  granary  and  had 
injured  the  grain  badly.  Curiously  enough,  when  the 
larvae  became  nearly  full-grown  they  burrowed  into  the 
pine  boards  forming  the  bins  and  changed  to  pupae  within 


FIG.  68.  —  Larva  of  the 
Cadelle.     (X  3.) 


234  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

the  burrows.  We  show  in  Fig.  69  a  section  of  the  side 
of  a  bin  showing  the  burrows  made  by  the  larvae. 

Slingerland  made  observations  on  the  life  history  and 
habits  of  the  beetles  for  a  period  of  nearly  a  year  in  which 
he  kept  them  in  the  insectary.  He  placed  the  beetles  in 
tumblers  containing  wheat.  Here  the  beetles  freely  laid 
their  eggs,  which  hatched  and  the  larvae  came  to  maturity, 
using  the  wheat  grains  as  food.  We  have  also  found  them 

in  oatmeal  and  kept 
them  under  observa- 
tion for  a  long  in- 
terval in  this  cereal. 

FIG.  69.  —  Section  of  bin  showing  holes  in  the         n^  •        qrrml] 

wood  made  by  the  larva  of  the  Cadelle.  *  ne  C^  1S  a  small> 

white  object,  much 

longer  than  wide  and  slightly  curved.  It  would  take 
nearly  20  of  them,  placed  end  to  end,  to  reach  one 
inch  (1.3  mm.  long  and  .3  mm.  wide).  Eggs  laid  about 
August  5th  hatched  August  loth,  thus  indicating  an 
incubation  period  of  about  ten  days.  The  newly 
hatched  larvae  are  very  small  and  resemble  the  full- 
grown  ones  in  color  and  general  appearance.  The  larvae 
that  hatched  from  the  eggs  in  August  grew  slowly  and 
lived  in  the  warm  insectary  among  the  wheat  grains 
until  the  following  April  and  May.  In  the  latter  part  of 
April  one  larva  was  found  in  a  burrow  in  a  pine  stick  that 
had  been  placed  in  the  tumbler.  Later  it  pupated  in  its 
burrow.  About  the  middle  of  May  another  larva  was 
found  in  its  burrow  in  a  pine  stick.  A  month  later  this 
larva  had  changed  to  a  pupa  and  on  July  10th  one  of  these 
pupae  had  changed  to  an  adult  beetle,  while  the  other  had 
dried  up  and  died.  Thus  it  evidently  takes  about  one 
year  for  the  insect  to  pass  through  its  life  cycle. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS  235 

The  beetles,  themselves,  are  apparently  long-lived 
insects,  for  Slingerland  kept  one  of  them  alive  and  active 
for  nearly  a  year  in  the  tumbler.  Another  observer  kept 
one  alive  for  twenty-one  months. 

The  larvae  of  the  Cadelle  have  been  found  in  all  sorts  of 
unexpected  places  and  among  various  kinds  of  food-stuffs. 
An  instance  is  given  in  Insect  Life  in  which  a  correspondent 
sent  in  a  larva  which  had  been  found  in  a  bottle  of  milk. 
Very  likely,  in  this  instance,  the  insect  had  crawled  into 
the  empty  bottle  from  near-by  grain  and  had  remained 
there  unnoticed  when  the  bottle  was  filled.  A  far  more 
interesting  occurrence  of  the  beetles  is  that  related  by 
Webster,  in  which  he  found  two  beetles  that  had  tunneled 
through  a  cork  and  burrowed  into  a  quantity  of  white 
hellebore.  The  beetles  when  found  were  dead,  but  they 
had  channeled  the  material  in  all  directions,  showing  that 
they  had  lived  in  the  powder  some  time.  The  material, 
however,  was  old  and  had  lost  much  of  its  strength,  al- 
though later,  when  sifted  upon  gooseberry  bushes,  was 
found  strong  enough  to  kill  the  imported  currant- 
worms.  The  larvae  of  the  Cadelle  have  also  been 
found  in  one  or  two  instances  in  sugar.  Their  presence 
there  was  probably  accidental.  The  beetles  and  the 
larva?  were  found  by  Johnson  boring  through  the 
parchment  paper  of  jars  containing  jams  and  jellies 
imported  from  Liverpool,  England.  After  the  insects 
had  tunneled  through  the  paper  they  fed  upon  the 
surface  of  the  preserves. 

Miss  Ormerod  found  the  larvae  feeding  upon  the  larvae 
of  the  rust-red  flour-beetles.  The  injury  done  to  cereals 
by  the  Cadelle  is  somewhat  counterbalanced  by  its 
predaceous  habits. 


236  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  Cadelle  can  be  controlled 
by  taking  the  same  measures  recommended  for  the  meal- 
worms. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CADELLE 

1839.     WESTWOOD,  J.  O.  —An.  Introd.  to  the  Mod.  Class,  of  insects, 

p.  147.     (Gives  other  references.) 

1883.    CURTIS,  JOHN.  —  Farm  insects,  pp.  332-334  (2d  ed.). 
1888.     RILEY  and  HOWARD.  —  Insect  life,  Vol.   1,  pp.   112,  314, 

360. 

1895.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  more  important  insects  injurious 
to  stored  grains.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Yearbook,  1894,  pp.  277- 
294. 

1896.  DAVIS,  G.  C.  —  Some  injurious  insects.     Bull.  132,  Mich. 
Expt.  Stat.,  p.  21. 

1899.  JOHNSON,   W.   G.  —  The  bolting  cloth  beetle.    Tenebroides 
mauritamcus.     Bull.  20,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  67. 

1900.  ORMEROD,  ELEANOR.  —  "Cadelle,"  bread  beetle.     23  Rept. 
Inj.  Ins.,  pp.  56-59. 

1901.  DE  CHAMPVILLE,  G.  F.  —  Les  ennemis  du  ble,  pp.  61-63. 
1909.     SMITH,  R.  I.  —  The  Cadelle.     Bull.  203,  N.  C.  Expt.  Stat., 

pp. 11-12. 
See  also  Reports  of  111.  State  Ents.,  IV,  V,  VI,  XVI. 


THE    SAW-TOOTHED    GRAIN-BEETLE 

Silwnus  surinamensis 

Among  the  insects  which  are  injurious  to  stored  grains 
there  is  a  small,  narrow,  chocolate-brown  or  reddish  beetle. 
It  is  scarcely  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  but  makes  up  in 
numbers  for  its  small  size  (Fig.  70).  It  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  beetles  in  all  kinds  of  stored  grains,  especially 
in  the  Southern  states .  Moreover,  in  the  Southern  states  it 
undoubtedly  causes  more  loss  in  many  instances,  than  any 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS 


237 


other  of  the  stored  grain  insects.  This  insect  is  commonly 
known  among  the  farmers  as  the  "  grain- weevil "  or  the 
"saw-tooth  weevil." 

The  beetle,  itself,  is  a  minute,  flattened,  reddish-brown 
beetle  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  The  thorax  is  the 
distinguishing  feature  of  this  insect. 
It  is  long  and  narrow  and  bears  on 
each  lateral  margin  a  number,  usually 
6,  of  conspicuous  tooth-like  projec- 
tions. It  is  this  characteristic  that 
gives  the  beetle  the  name  of  "saw- 
tooth weevil."  There  are  three 
strong  ridges  on  top  of  the  thorax 
with  two  wide 
sunken  areas,  one 
each  side  of  the  cen- 
tral ridge.  The  wing 
covers  are  longi- 
tudinally ridged 

with  the  areas  be-  FIG.   70.  —  The  saw- 
tween  finely  punc-      £»*£*  ^-in-beetle. 
tate.     The  head  is 
also  densely  covered   with   punctures. 
The    larva    (Fig.   71)    is    somewhat 
,  flattened    and    has    a    transverse   rec- 

tiu.  71.  —  Larva    of 

saw-toothed  grain-  tangular  chitimzed  area  on  the  dorsal 

beetle,  enlarged.        side    Qf    each    body    segment.      On    the 

thoracic  and  anterior  abdominal  seg- 
ments these  rectangular  areas  may  be  divided  in  two 
by  a  whitish  line  through  the  middle.  The  larva,  when 
living  in  granular  material,  like  meal,  usually  builds  a 
thin  case  out  of  the  particles  and  the  whitish  pupa  may 


238  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

be  found  within.  When  the  insect  is  living  in  substances 
like  fine  flour  it  does  not  build  a  case. 

The  life  history  of  this  pest  is  not  well  known.  It 
would  seem  that  there  may  be  several  generations 
during  a  season,  probably  six  or  seven  in  warmer 
latitudes.  During  the  summer  months  the  life  cycle 
occupies  about  twenty-four  days,  while  in  spring  and 
fall  during  cooler  temperatures  a  much  longer  time  is 
required.  The  species  apparently  winters  over  in  the 
adult  condition. 

The  saw-toothed  grain-beetle  is  fond  of  meal,  flour, 
and  grain  of  all  kinds.  It  is  nearly  always  present  in 
granaries  and  has  been  reported  in  starch,  tobacco,  and 
dried  meats,  although  Chittenden  says,  "it  is  doubtful  if 
the  insect  will  breed  in  such  substances."  It  is  often 
present  in  dried  fruits.  Our  records  show  that  the  beetles 
get  into  macaroni,  cornstarch,  ginger,  and  mustard,  and 
that  they  attack  dried  peaches.  They  are  often  brought 
into  the  house  in  the  materials  purchased  at  the  store. 
Moreover,  the  beetles  have  the  habit  of  gnawing  holes 
through  paper  bags,  thus  finding  their  way  into  stores  of 
cereals  supposedly  well  protected  from  invasion  by  insects. 
Taschenberg,  in  discussing  this  beetle  under  the  name  of 
Silvanus  frumentarius,  mentions  an  instance  where  the 
adults  invaded  dwelling  rooms  adjacent  to  a  brewery  in 
which  grains  were  stored.  The  invading  beetles  developed 
the  curious  habit  of  creeping  into  the  beds  and  nipping  the 
sleepers. 

Evidently  this  grain  beetle  is  widely  distributed  over 
this  country  and  over  the  world.  Taschenberg  says  that 
through  commerce  this  species  has  spread  over  the  whole 
earth. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS  239 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  insect  is  amenable  to  the 
same  methods  of  control  described  for  the  control  of  the 
flour-beetles,  meal  moth,  and  others  of  similar  habits. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  other  species,  so  with  the  saw-tooth 
grain-beetle,  the  attempts  at  eradication  must  be  thorough 
and  persistent. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  SAW-TOOTH  GRAIN- 
BEETLE 

1879.     TASCHENBERG,  E.  L.  —  The  small  grain  beetles.     Praktische 

Insekten-Kunde,  II,  pp.  19-20. 
1893.     BECKWITH,  M.  H.  —  Insects  injurious  to  stored  grains.     6th 

Ann.  Kept.  Del.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  154-155. 
1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  principal   household  insects  of 

the  U.  S.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  121-122. 
1912.     GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  Insects  injurious  to  stored  grains  and  their 

ground  products.     Bull.  156,  111.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  79-80. 


THE   ANGOUMOIS   GRAIN  MOTH 

Sitotroga   cerealella 

The  Angoumois  grain  moth  (Fig.  72)  is  a  European  insect 
first  reported  as  destructive  at  Lu9on,  France,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  La  Vendee  in  1736.  Shortly  afterwards  it  was 
found  destroying  grain  in 
the  adjacent  province  of 
Angoumois,  from  which  it 
received  the  name  that  has 
always  clung  to  it.  Early 
in  the  history  of  the 

American     Colonies     it    Was       FlG.  72._The  Angoumois  grain 

introduced    somehow    into  moth,    (x  3.) 


240 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  From 
thence  it  has  spread  over  the  Southern 
states  and  as  far  north  as  Massachu- 
setts, New  York,  and  Michigan.  It  is 
more  destructive  in  the  South  than 
elsewhere  because  of  the  warmer  cli- 
mate, and  it  is  primarily  a  pest  of 
stored  grains  rather  than  of  household 
products,  although  it  is  often  found  in 
popcorn  (Fig.  73),  rice,  and  other 
cereals. 

Life  history  and  habits.  —  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly destructive  to  stored  grains, 
especially  in  the  South.     It    has   been 
known  to  reduce  the  weight   of  grain 
50  per  cent  in  a  few  months.      It  in- 
creases very  rapidly  and  because  of  the 
FIG    73  —  Ear    of  secmded  habits  of  the  larva  is  difficult 
popcorn   infested  to  control  in  any  way  except  by  heat 

with  larvae  of  the         d  fumigation. 
, 

Ihe  moth  is  light  grayish-brown  or 
straw-colored  with  its  wings  lightly 
mottled  and  lined  with  black,  especially 
near  the  tips.  The  wings  are  long  and 
narrow  and  the  hind  pair  is  fringed  with 
long,  delicate  hairs  along  the  posterior 
margins.  The  moths  resemble  clothes 
moths  in  general  appearance  and  habits 
of  flying,  but  they  are  somewhat  larger, 
for  their  wings  expand  a  little  more  than 
one-half  an  inch. 

Ihe  moths  deposit   their  white  eggs      moth,  enlarged. 


Angoumois   gram 

moth. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS 


241 


(Fig.  74)   on  the  kernels  of  corn  or  other  grain.     The 
eggs,  which  are  elongated  and  regularly  sculptured  with 


FIG.  75.  —  Larva  of  Angoumois  grain  moth,  enlarged. 

rectangular  areas,  soon  turn  to  a  pale  reddish  color. 
They  hatch  in  five  or  six  days  and  the  tiny  white  larva 
(Fig.  75)  burrows  into  the  grain  of  corn,  or  wheat  and 
lives  on  the  substance  in  the  interior. 
Like  the  grain-weevils,  there  may  be 
two  or  more  individuals  in  a  grain  of 
corn,  but  only  one  in  a  grain  of  wheat. 
In  three  weeks  or  more  the  larva  be- 
comes full-grown,  gnaws  a  circular 
opening  nearly  through  the  skin  of 
the  kernel  for  the  escape  of  the  moth, 
and  spins  a  cocoon  about  itself  inside 
the  grain,  where  it  pupates  (Fig.  76). 
The  moth  emerges  a  few  days  later. 

In  the  field  there  are  at  least  four 
broods  in  a  season  in  the  Southern 
states,  and  in  grain  stored  in  a  warm 
room  the  insects  breed  throughout  the  FlQ-  76.— Pupa  of  the 

.  Angoumois        gram 

year.     They  pass  the  winter  out-of-      moth,  enlarged, 
doors  as  larvae  in  the  kernels  of  grain. 

The  moth  infests  barley,  corn,  wheat,  and  other  cereals. 
It  is  found  in  houses  in  popcorn,  rice,  and  occasionally 
in  other  cereals. 


242  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  same  methods  of  control 
that  were  outlined  for  the  grain-weevils  will  also  hold  the 
Angoumois  grain  moth  in  check. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  ANGOUMOIS  GRAIN 
MOTH 

1862.     HARRIS,    T.    W.  —  The    Angoumois    grain-moth.      Insects 

Injurious  to  Vegetation  (Flint  edition),  pp.  499-510. 
1883.     WEBSTER,    F.    M.  —  The   Angoumois    grain    moth.     12th 

Kept.  State  Ent.  of  111.,  pp.  144-154. 
1897.     CHITTENDEN,    F.    H.  —  The      Angoumois      grain      moth. 

Farmers'  Bull.  45,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  6-7. 
1903.     PETTIT,   R.    H.  —  The    Angoumois   grain    moth.     Special 

Bull.  17,  Mich.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  22-24. 
1912.     GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  The  Angoumois  grain  moth.     Bull.  156, 

111.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  69-72. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN   FLOTJR  MOTH 

Ephestia   kiihniella 

Some  thirty-seven  years  ago  this  insect  was  discovered 
in  a  flour  mill  in  Germany.  Up  to  that  time  it  had  been 
comparatively  unknown.  In  1889  it  appeared  in  destruc- 
tive numbers  in  Canada  and  three  years  later  was  found  in 
mills  in  California.  In  1895  it  was  reported  present  in 
flour  mills  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  and  during 
subsequent  years  it  has  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the 
United  States  and  has  become  one  of  the  most  serious 
pests  found  in  flour  mills  and  buildings  where  cereals  are 
stored. 

Naturally  it  has  found  its  way  into  the  kitchens,  pan- 
tries, storerooms,  and  granaries  of  private  households. 
The  insect  has  been  brought  to  these  homes  in  sacks  of 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  CEREALS  243 

flour,  feed,  and  packages  of  cereals.  Not  long  ago  we 
received  a  complaint  from  a  housekeeper  in  Ithaca,  that  a 
sack  of  bran  in  her  storage  bin  was  infested  with  many 
white  "worms."  A  sample  of  the  bran  was  obtained  and 
the  adults  reared  from  the  larvae.  They  proved  to  be  the 
Mediterranean  flour  moth. 

Another  instance  of  the  same  kind  occurred  in  the  house 
of  an  entomological  colleague.  In  this  case,  the  flour  bin 
became  badly  infested  with  the  larvae  and  moths.  They 
entered  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  bin,  webbing  together 
the  waste  flour  and  dust.  The  whole  bin  had  to  be  very 
carefully  gone  over  with  a  stiff  brush  and  the  larvae  dis- 
lodged, swept  up,  and  destroyed. 

This  moth  will  probably  continue  to  increase  as  a  house- 
hold pest  because  it  is  now  widely  distributed  among  the 
larger  flour  mills  of  the  country.  It  is  bound  to  be 
brought  into  the  homes  of  consumers  in  sacks  of  flour, 
feed,  and  cereals. 

The  eggs,  which  are  very  small  (Plate  IV),  are  often 
deposited  on  sacks  containing  flour  and  other  products  of 
the  mill,  in  which  situations  they  are  easily  transported 
long  distances,  especially  into  dwellings.  The  larvae  al- 
ways conceal  themselves  by  burrowing  into  the  cereal 
infested  and  are  thus  easily  overlooked  and  carried  from 
place  to  place.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  in  view  of  these 
habits  that  the  insect  has  found  its  way  into  many  pan- 
tries. 

Appearance  of  the  insect.  —  The  larva  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean flour  moth  is  about  one-half  an  inch  in  length  and 
has  a  cylindrical,  flesh-colored  body  with  a  pinkish  cast. 
The  body  is  sparsely  clothed  with  long  hairs  and  the  head 
is  reddish-brown  in  color.  The  larva  has  the  three  pairs 


244  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

of  true  legs  on  the  thorax  and  four  pairs  of  fleshy  ones 
along  the  underside  of  the  abdomen  and  a  single  pair  at 
the  hind  end  of  the  body. 

The  adult  is  a  dark-colored  moth  (Plate  IV)  varying  from 
one-half  an  inch  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length  when 
at  rest.  When  the  wings  are  expanded  they  measure  from 
three-fourths  to  an  inch  across.  When  at  rest  the  wings 
are  folded  along  each  side  of  the  body  while  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  is  often  turned  upward  between  the  ends  of  the 
wings.  The  front  wings  are  rather  dark  gray  and  crossed 
near  the  tips  with  dark,  wavy  lines  and  not  far  from  the 
bases  with  a  wavy,  W-shaped  line.  The  hind  wings  are 
silver  gray.  Both  wings  are  heavily  fringed  with  long 
hairs. 

Habits,  injuries,  and  food.  —  The  larva?  have  the  very 
bad  habit  of  spinning  silken  threads  wherever  they  go. 
Moreover,  they  are  constantly  crawling  here  and  there 
through  the  flour,  bran,  or  other  material  upon  which 
they  are  feeding.  The  result  is  that  the  material  becomes 
webbed  together  with  the  silken  threads.  In  mills, 
where  the  larvae  are  present,  the  flour  becomes  webbed 
together  in  such  masses  that  the  spouts  and  machinery 
become  clogged  and  unable  to  run. 

When  once  the  flour  in  a  barrel  or  the  bran  in  a  sack 
becomes  thoroughly  infested  with  these  larvae  the  whole 
mass  will  be  filled  with  their  webs  and  so  matted  together 
that  it  becomes  practically  unfit  for  anything  save  to  feed 
to  stock.  They  are  much  more  injurious  in  mills  than 
in  private  dwellings. 

It  seems  that  these  insects  are  more  fond  of  rice  flour 
and  products  than  of  anything  else.  Buckwheat  flour 
is  also  verv  attractive  to  them.  However,  when  driven 


PLATE   IV 


Indian-meal  moth  above,  enlarged;  Mediterranean  flour-moth  (X  3)  and 
eggs  (X  5)  in  middle;  pupae  of  Mediterranean  flour-moth,  below. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS     245 

to  it  they  will  eat  almost  anything.  We  have  had  a  colony 
of  them  living  on  corn  in  the  ear  in  the  insectary  for  several 
years.  The  larvae  seem  to  thrive  upon  the  corn  and  go 
on  reproducing  the  whole  year  through. 

Life  history.  —  The  egg  is  elongated,  oval  in  shape,  and 
when  first  laid  almost  white,  but  later  it  turns  brown  and 
becomes  wrinkled.  The  egg  is  visible  to  the  unaided  eye, 
but  so  small  that  it  takes  forty  to  fifty  of  them,  placed 
end  to  end,  to  reach  an  inch.  In  our  cages  the  eggs 
were  deposited  on  paper  and  cloth  and  on  the  sides  of 
the  glass  tumblers  in  which  the  moths  were  confined. 
It  takes  the  eggs  from  five  to  ten  days  to  hatch  after  being 
deposited. 

When  the  caterpillar  first  emerges  from  the  egg  it  is 
only  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  But  it 
eats  a  great  deal  and  grows  rapidly,  so  that  in  midsummer 
it  becomes  full-grown  in  25  to  40  days.  In  early  spring 
and  late  fall,  when  the  temperature  is  lower,  it  takes  longer 
for  the  larva  to  mature.  When  the  larva  is  full-grown, 
it  spins  a  very  fine  thin  cocoon  of  silk  and  within  this 
changes  to  a  pupa.  The  cocoon  is  usually  fastened  to 
some  surface,  and  often  particles  of  flour  and  meal  are 
mixed  with  the  silk.  The  pupa  rests  quietly  for  ten  or 
fifteen  days  and  then  its  skin  splits  open  along  the  back 
and  the  moth  crawls  out,  dries  its  wings,  and  perhaps  flies 
to  other  parts  of  the  house.  The  female  moth  is  soon 
ready  to  deposit  her  eggs,  which  in  our  cages  were  laid 
mostly  at  night.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  laid  singly  and 
sometimes  in  chains  of  eight  or  ten.  Johnson  has  shown 
that  a  single  moth  may  lay  as  high  as  271  eggs  with  an 
average  of  about  240. 

Under  natural  conditions  in  the  East  there  are  probably 


246  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

four  broods  a  season.  In  the  South  and  in  California 
there  may  be  more.  If  infested  material  is  stored  in  a 
warm  pantry  or  kitchen,  the  insects  will  breed  all  through 
the  year. 

Methods  of  control.  —  In  mills,  where  the  work  of 
extermination  is  done  on  a  large  scale,  fumigation  with 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  often  resorted  to.  In  the  case 
of  a  pantry  this  might  also  be  done.  First,  however,  all 
of  the  walls  of  the  storage  bin  should  be  gone  over  with 
a  stiff  brush  and  just  as  many  of  the  larvse  and  pupae  dis- 
lodged, swept  up,  and  burned  as  possible.  Then  the  sacks 
of  infested  material  should  be  separated  so  that  the  gas 
will  have  access  to  all  sides  of  them.  The  same  care  to 
make  the  room  as  tight  as  possible  should  be  exercised 
as  was  advised  in  the  chapter  on  bedbugs. 

It  has  been  found  that  freezing  will  kill  all  forms  of  this 
insect,  but  the  temperature  must  be  zero  or  below  and 
must  continue  for  four  or  five  days.  It  is  also  important 
to  follow  this  freezing  quickly  with  warm  temperatures. 
It  seems  that  the  severe  cold  followed  by  high  temperatures 
is  more  effective  than  prolonged,  even,  cold  temperatures. 
Wherever  conditions  are  such  that  this  method  can  be 
used  the  insect  may  be  exterminated. 

Carbon  bisulfide  may  be  used  if  desired  to  spray  the 
infested  sacks  and  masses  of  flour  or  other  cereal  and  to 
fumigate  a  storage  bin  or  pantry.  If  used  to  fumigate, 
the  room  should  be  made  tight,  and  two  pounds  of  the 
liquid  to  each  1000  cubic  feet  of  space  should  be  used. 
The  gas  from  carbon  bisulfide  is  inflammable  and  no 
lights  of  any  kind  should  be  brought  near  the  room  which 
is  being  fumigated. 

Probably  the  most  economical  way  to  follow  in  a  private 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS  247 

dwelling  is  to  feed  the  infested  flour,  meal,  or  other  cereal 
to  stock  and  then  to  brush  down  all  the  larvae  and  pupae 
and  burn  them.  Then  spray  the  walls  of  the  storage  bins 
thoroughly  with  kerosene  oil,  being  sure  to  force  it  into 
all  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  walls  and  floors.  This 
will  kill  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupa?.  With  care  and  persistence 
this  moth  can  be  exterminated  from  the  house,  but  the 
pantry  is  liable  to  be  reinfested  with  it  at  any  time  for,  as 
we  have  said,  it  is  present  in  most  flour  mills  and  there 
is  little  hope  of  its  ever  being  exterminated. 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  MEDITERRANEAN 
FLOUR  MOTH 

1879.     ZELLER,  P.  C.  —Ephestia  kuhniella  n.  sp.     Stettiner  Entomo- 

logische  Zeitung,  pp.  466-471. 
1887.     LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Ephestia    kuhniella  as    a  pest  in    mills. 

N.  Y.  State  Mus.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  39th.  An.  Kept.,  p.  99. 

1893.  DANYSZ,  J.  — Ephestia  kuhniella,  parasite  des  bles,  des  far- 
ines,  et  des  biscuits.     Histoire  Naturelle  du  Parasite  et  Moyens 
de   le   detruire.     Memoires  du   Laboratoire   de   Parasitologie 
V6ge"tale  de  la  Bourse  de  Commerce,  Vol.  1,  Paris. 

1894.  JOHNSON,  W.  G.  —  The  Mediterranean  flour  moth.     Appen- 
dix to  the  nineteenth  report  of  the  State  Entomologist  of  Illinois. 

1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Development  of  the  Mediterranean 

flour  moth.     Bull.  6,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  85-88. 
1896.     QUAINTANCE,  A.  L.  —  The  Mediterranean  flour-moth.     Bull. 

36,  Fla.  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  363. 
1904.     WASHBURN,  F.  L.  —  The  Mediterranean  flour  moth.     Special 

Kept,  of  the  State  Ent.  of  Minn.,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 
1910.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Control  of  the  Mediterranean  flour 

moth  by  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  fumigation.     Circ.  112,  Bu.  Ent., 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

For  further  references  to  literature  on  this  insect  see  the  paper  of 
Johnson  referred  to  above. 


248 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


THE   CONFUSED   FLOUR-BEETLE 

Tribolium  confusum 

Flour,  meal,  and  prepared  cereals  of  all  kinds,  are  often 
infested  with  tiny  reddish-brown  beetles  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  in  length.  In  most  cases  one  may  be  quite 
sure  these  are  the  confused  flour  beetles  although  in  addi- 
tion to  their  being  confused  with  the  rust-red  flour-beetle 
one  is  liable  to  mistake  the  saw-toothed 
grain-beetles  for  them  unless  closely 
examined.  The  confused  flour-beetle 
(Fig.  77)  has  a  flattened,  oval  body 
with  the  head  and  thorax,  on  the  top 
sides,  densely  covered  with  minute 
round  punctures.  The  saw-toothed 
grain-beetle  has  a  long,  slender  body, 
and  the  edges  of  the  thorax  are  beset 
with  tooth-like  projections  which  dis- 
tinguish it  at  once,  when  closely  ex- 
amined, from  this  flour-beetle. 

The  confused  flour-beetle  occurs  all 
over  the  United  States,  although  it  is 
an  introduced  species.  Chittenden 
says  that  within  two  years  from  the  time  it  was  recognized 
in  this  country  as  a  distinct  species  it  was  reported  as 
injurious  from  almost  every  state  and  territory  in  the 
Union.  We  have  received  many  complaints  regarding 
this  pest  in  various  cereals.  It  was  reported  not  long  ago 
in  oatmeal  flour  and  has  been  breeding  all  winter  in  this 
material  in  our  insectary.  At  this  writing  the  flour  is 
one  mass  of  the  tiny  larvae  and  adult  beetles.  They  have 


FIG.  77.- — The  con- 
fus3d  flour-beetle. 
(X  12.) 


INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS  249 

evidently  bred  freely  during  the  winter  months  in  the  warm 
room. 

One  of  the  large  powdered  food  manufacturing  com- 
panies sent  us  specimens  of  this  beetle  and  the  larvae 
and  said  that  they  were  found  generally  in  their  factories. 
The  writer  reported  as  follows  on  the  habits  of  the  insect ; 
"They  are  found  usually  in  cracks  or  under  cover,  seldom 
being  seen  in  the  open.  The  bugs  eat  wheat  flour  and 
unground  wheat  malt,  wrhile  the  worms  eat  the  ground 
malt  and  our  unfinished  product.  It  seems  that  both  are 
attracted  by  the  sugar  content  of  the  material,  as  they  are 
not  found  in  a  certain  portion  of  it  which  does  not  contain 
sugar,  with  the  exception  of  the  wheat  flour." 

The  larva  of  this  flour-beetle  resembles  a  miniature 
yellow  meal-worm.  Of  course,  it  is  very  much  smaller, 
being  only  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Its 
body  is  hard  and  of  a  shining  brown  color,  except  at  the 
joining  of  the  segments,  where  it  is  lighter  in  color.  Where 
the  larvae  are  abundant  they  mat  the  flour  together  in 
hard  masses  and  in  these  masses  one  will  find  the  adults, 
larvae,  and  pupae. 

The  confused  flour-beetle  is  a  pest  in  mills  as  well  as  in 
houses.  W.  G.  Johnson,  in  the  different  issues  of  the 
American  Miller,  gives  considerable  data  regarding  this 
beetle  as  a  pest  in  mills.  In  the  issue  of  this  periodical 
for  Jan.  1,  1896,  he  says  that  it  was  the  most  troublesome 
mill  pest  of  the  year  1895  and  estimates  that  it  had  cost 
the  millers  of  the  United  States  over  $100,000  in  manu- 
factured products  during  that  one  year. 

The  beetles  and  the  larvae  are  general  feeders,  for  they 
are  found  in  the  cereals,  in  corn-meal,  oatmeal,  flour,  and 
Chittenden  says  in  ginger,  cayenne  pepper,  baking  powder, 


250  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

orris  root,  snuff,  slippery  elm  flour,  peanuts,  peas,  beans, 
and  seeds  of  various  kinds  that  are  stored  a  long  time. 
They  are  also  pests  in  the  museum,  for  they  attack  the 
bodies  of  insect  specimens. 

Chittenden  cites  an  instance  in  which  a  whole  consign- 
ment of  baking  powder  was  lost  through  an  infestation 
by  this  insect.  It  seems  that  wheat  flour  had  been  used 
to  adulterate  the  powder  and  probably  it  was  this  that 
attracted  the  insects.  The  boxes  had  all  been  wrapped 
tightly  with  paper  so  that  they  were  practically  air-tight. 
The  beetles  must  have  gained  access  to  the  powder  in 
the  factory  before  the  boxes  were  closed. 

The  life  history  of  this  pest  has  not  been  completely 
worked  out  and  it  is  not  clearly  understood.  The  small 
white  eggs  are  laid  in  crevices  of  the  receptacle  or  are 
attached  to  the  sides  of  thejbags  or  boxes  or  other  con- 
venient surface.  It  would  appear,  from  our  own  observa- 
tions, that  they  are  laid  among  the  cereal  on  which  the 
beetle  is  working,  especially  on  the  hard  lumps  of  which 
we  have  spoken.  These  hatch  into  the  tiny  white  larvae, 
which  later  become  light  brown  in  color.  The  larvae 
probably  attain  their  growth  in  about  four  weeks  and  then 
change  to  pupae.  Chittenden  found  that  the  insect  passed 
through  its  whole  life  cycle  in  about  thirty-six  days.  He 
estimated  about  six  days  as  the  period  of  incubation  and 
about  six  days  for  the  pupal  period.  There  is  evidently 
an  opportunity  for  several  generations  during  a  season, 
and,  as  we  have  shown,  they  will  breed  in  warm,  evenly 
heated  rooms  all  winter. 

Methods  of  control.  —  Many  times,  when  the  beetles 
become  abundant  in  a  flour  bin  or  in  wooden  compart- 
ments in  which  various  cereals  may  be  stored,  they  are 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS     251 

hard  to  eradicate.  In  such  cases,  all  of  the  flour  and 
cereals  will  have  to  be  removed  and  the  receptacles 
thoroughly  cleaned  in  some  manner.  The  beetles  may 
often  hide  in  the  cracks,  and  in  that  case  boiling  water 
will  perhaps  prove  the  best  material  with  which  to  reach 
them.  Whenever  it  is  feasible  to  fumigate  the  bin  or 
storage  receptacles  with  carbon  bisulfide  this  will  prove 
effective  if  the  flour  containing  the  beetles  is  thrown  away 
or  fed  out.  They  are  so  small  and  flour  is  so  hard  to 
penetrate  with  the  gas  that  fumigation  will  not  reach  the 
insects  when  embedded  in  the  food  material.  To  make 
doubly  sure,  wooden  barrels,  buckets,  or  bins  might  well 
be  given  a  good  coating  of  white  paint  inside  and  out 
as  a  final  touch  to  the  efforts  at  eradication. 


THE   RUST-RED   FLOUR-BEETLE 

Tribolium  ferrugineum 

The  rust-red  flour-beetle  is  very  similar  to  the  confused 
flour-beetle  and  the  two  species  have  evidently  been  much 
confused.  We  have  not  found  the  rust-red  species  in 
New  York,  although  it  occurs  in  this  latitude.  It  seems 
to  be  more  generally  confined  to  the  Southern  states,  where 
it  infests  grain  much  as  the  confused  flour-beetle.  Its 
work  and  habits  are  similar  to  the  species  just  discussed. 
J.  B.  Smith  in  his  catalogue  of  the  insects  of  New  Jersey 
says  that  these  two  species  occur  in  that  state  together 
and  very  often  mixed  with  one  another  in  the  same  food 
mass. 

The  two  species  may  be  distinguished  by  differences  in 
the  antennae  and  in  the  margins  of  the  heads. 


252  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  segments  of  the  antennae  of  the  confused  flour- 
beetle  gradually  enlarge  from  the  base  to  the  tip  of  the 
antenna,  thus  forming  a  gradually  clavate  organ.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  last  few  segments  of  the  antennae 
of  the  rust-red  beetle  are  much  larger  than  the  preceding 
ones,  thus  forming  a  suddenly  clavate  organ. 

Again,  the  margins  of  the  head  of  the  confused  flour- 
beetle  are  expanded  and  notched  or  angulated  at  the  eyes, 
while  the  margins  of  the  head  of  the  rust-red  beetle  are 
nearly  continuous  at  the  eyes. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  FLOUR-BEETLES 

1896.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Insects  affecting  cereals  and  other 
dry  vegetable  foods.  Bull.  4,  n.s.,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent,  pp.  113-114. 

1912.  GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  Insects  injurious  to  stored  grains  and  their 
ground  products.  Bull.  156,  111.  Expt.  Stat. 

THE   INDIAN-MEAL   MOTH 

Plodia  interpunctella 

The  writer  first  became  acquainted  with  this  insect,  in 
a  practical  way,  as  a  pest  in  packages  of  raisins  in  his  own 
larder.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  common  household 
pest  and  the  larvae  are  found  in  all  sorts  of  stored  products. 
It  probably  finds  its  way  commonly  into  houses  by  being 
brought  in  in  supplies  from  grocery  and  feed  stores. 
Not  long  ago  the  remains  of  a  box  of  graham  crackers 
were  brought  up  from  a  grocery  store  for  examination 
and  determination  of  the  kind  of  worms  that  were  de- 
stroying this  article  of  food.  In  a  few  days  an  adult  moth 
appeared  and  proved  to  be  the  Indian-meal  moth,  as  we 
had  predicted  from  an  examination  of  the  larvae. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS  253 

Distribution  and  food.  —  The  Indian-meal  moth  is 
widely  distributed  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  and 
is  found  in  different  countries  in  Europe. 

As  Holland  says,  this  insect  "has  a  propensity  to  feed 
upon  almost  anything  edible  that  comes  its  way."  In 
this  country  one  of  our  earliest  accounts  of  it  was  by  Fitch, 
in  1856,  who  called  it  the  Indian-meal  moth  because  he 
found  the  larvse  feeding  in  corn-meal.  The  larvaB  evi- 
dently are  very  fond  of  corn-meal,  but  they  do  not  refuse 
grain  of  any  kind,  ground  or  whole.  As  we  have  already 
noted,  we  have  found  the  larvae  feeding  on  oatmeal, 
graham  crackers,  and  raisins.  Our  department  records 
also  show  that  the  larvae  live  upon  and  do  much  damage  to 
stored  peanuts.  Popenoe  records  the  same  injury  on 
a  wide  scale  in  Virginia  and  North  and  South  Carolina. 
In  addition,  the  insect  has  been  recorded  as  feeding  upon 
prunes,  currants,  dried  apples,  flour,  beans,  English  wal- 
nuts, pecans,  almonds,  chocolate  beans,  dried  peaches, 
plums,  cherries,  clover  seed  and  other  seeds. 

Appearance  of  the  different  stages.  —  The  moth  is  some- 
what smaller  than  the  Mediterranean  flour  moth  and 
differs  considerably  in  appearance  when  examined  closely. 
The  wings  expand  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  and  the 
fore  wings  are  dull  white  or  cream-colored  on  their  basal 
parts,  while  the  outer  parts  of  these  wings  are  reddish- 
brown  in  color  with  irregular  markings  of  blackish  bands 
and  patches.  The  hind  wings  are  dusky  gray  with  quite 
a  long  fringe  of  hairs  (Plate  IV). 

The  larva  is  whitish  or  flesh-colored  and  often  with  a 
rosy  or  yellowish  tint  (Fig.  78).  The  head  of  the  larva  is 
yellowish  or  reddish-brown  and  the  thoracic  shield  is  very 
pale  brown  with  a  distinct  pale  line  through  the  middle 


254  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

dividing  it  in  halves.  The  anal  segment  bears  a  pale 
brownish  plate  on  the  top  side.  Each  larva  has  five  pairs 
of  prolegs  along  the  abdomen,  each  of  which  is  furnished 
with  a  circle  of  hooks  at  its  extremity. 

Life  history  and  habits.  —  The  eggs,  which  are  small 
and  white  and  look  much  like  those  of  the  Mediterranean 

flour  moth,  are  de- 
posited singly  or  in 
groups  of  half  a  dozen 
or  more  on  the  ma- 

FIG.  7».  —  Larva  of  the  Indian-meal  moth,    terjal  upon  wnich  the 
enlarged.  .  , 

insects  happen  to  be 

living.  It  is  said  that  a  single  female  moth  may  lay  as 
many  as  350  eggs. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  about  four  days  if  the  room  is  warm 
and  the  larvae  in  a  warm  room  may  mature  in  three  weeks 
or  possibly  in  less  time.  Some  larvae  that  wre  collected  on 
September  19th,  1911,  occupied  over  two  months  in  reach- 
ing their  full  growth.  Of  course  the  temperature  varied 
a  great  deal  and  probably  averaged  lower  than  in  mid- 
summer. 

The  larvae  are  very  active  and  can  crawl  backwards  as 
well  as  forwards.  While  they  are  growing  they  crawl 
about  a  great  deal  and  have  the  same  pernicious  habit 
of  the  Mediterranean  flour  moth  of  spinning  a  web  wTher- 
ever  they  go,  which  entangles  the  particles  of  food,  binds 
them  together  in  a  webbed  mass,  and  makes  the  material 
unfit  for  food. 

When  the  larvae  become  full-grown  they  crawl  away  in 
search  of  some  fold  in  a  bag,  crack  in  a  wall,  or  in  the  floor, 
or  some  other  nook  in  which  to  ensconce  themselves. 
Here  they  spin  cylindrical  white  silken  cocoons  and  change 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  CEREALS  255 

to  pupae.  The  pupse  lie  quietly  in  their  cocoons  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  moths  emerge. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  an  abundance  of  food 
and  the  right  temperature  the  whole  life  cycle  from  egg 
to  moth  may  be  passed  in  four  or  five  weeks.  There  is 
consequently  time  for  four  or  even  more  generations  in 
one  year.  In  fact,  in  a  warm  room  they  may  breed  all 
the  year  through.  In  cold  rooms,  however,  the  larvae 
remain  quietly  within  their  cocoons  all  winter,  not  chang- 
ing to  pupse  until  warm  weather  of  the  following  spring. 

Natural  enemies.  —  The  Indian-meal  moth  seems  to 
have  a  number  of  natural  enemies.  The  two  hymenop- 
terous  parasites,  Omorgus  frumentarius,  and  Hadrobracon 
hebetor,  are  considered  the  most  important.  Popenoe 
says  that  these  two  forms  do  a  great  deal  toward  holding 
the  pest  in  check. 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  Indian-meal  moth  is  so  much 
like  the  Mediterranean  flour  moth  in  habits,  injuries,  and 
in  the  kind  of  food  that  it  eats  that  the  same  methods  used 
to  control  and  exterminate  the  latter  may  be  used  for  the 
former. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  INDIAN-MEAL  MOTH 

1856.     FITCH,  ASA.  —  The  Indian-meal  moth,  Tinea  zeae.     Second 

Kept,  on  noxious  and  beneficial  insects  of  New  York,  p.  320. 
1890.     RILEY    and     HOWARD.  —  Indian-meal     moth    in    Kansas. 

Insect  Life,  Vol.  2,  p.  277. 
1894.     STEVENSON,  H.  A.  —  An  attack  of  Ephestia  interpunctella. 

25th  Ann.  Rept.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont,  p.  57. 
1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Principal   household  insects  of    the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  118. 
1896.    QUAINTANCE,  A.  L.  —  The  Indian  meal-moth.    Bull.  36, 

Fla.  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  364. 


256  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

1897.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Some  insects  injurious  to  stored  grain. 

Farmers'  Bull.  45,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  9. 
1906.     BRITTON,  W.  E.  —  Ravages  of  the  Indian-meal  moth  in  a 

seed  warehouse.     Fifth  Kept,  of  Ent.  of  Conn.,  p.  252. 
1911.     POPENOE,  C.  H.  —  The  Indian-meal  moth  and  weevil-cut 

peanuts.    Circ.  142,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


THE  MEAL  SNOUT-MOTH 

Pyralis  farinalis 

So  far  as  the  experience  of  the  author  goes,  this  insect 
is  not  as  common  a  pest  in  households  as  the  two  which 
we  have  just  discussed.  However,  it  is  often  found  in 
cereals,  sometimes  in  flour,  and  meal,  and  often  injures 
clover  hay  while  stored  in  stack  or  barn.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  its  original  sources  of  food  consisted  of 
dried  grass  or  plant  stems.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
fastidious  regarding  the  kind  of  food  it  has,  for  it  apparently 
relishes  equally  well  straw,  husks,  bran,  and  seeds,  whole 
or  ground. 

The  moth.  —  The  moth  is  much  more  striking  and 
handsome  in  appearance  than  either  the  Indian-meal 
moth  or  the  Mediterranean  flour  moth.  Its  wings  expand 
about  four-fifths  of  an  inch,  but  they  are  wider  than  those 
of  the  two  moths  just  mentioned,  especially  the  hind  ones. 
The  front  wings  are  rather  conspicuously  marked.  They 
are  light  brown  in  color,  but  at  the  tip  and  base  of  each 
there  is  a  chocolate-brown  spot,  each  one  edged  with  a 
curved  white  line  that  extends  clear  across  the  wing  (Fig. 
79). 

The  moth  is  usually  found  near  the  material  infested 
by  the  larvae,  but  very  often  it  is  seen  clinging  to  the  ceil- 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS     257 

ings  of  rooms  with  the  end  of  its  abdomen  curved  over  its 
back. 

The  larva  and  its  habits.  —  The  larva  is  somewhat 
similar  in  appearance  to  those  of  the  other  two  cereal 
moths.  It  is  whitish  or  flesh-colored,  somewhat  darker 
at  either  end,  and  its  head  is  reddish. 

It  builds  long  tubes  in  the  material  on  which  it  is  feed- 
ing by  binding  the  particles  together  with  silk.  In  these 
tubes  it  lives  and  wholly 
conceals  itself.  When  the 
larva  has  completed  its 
growth  it  leaves  the  tube 
and  finds  a  place  in  which 
to  spin  its  cocoon,  within  •'^a^irf  A 

which  it  transforms  to  a 
PuPa- 

It  would  seem  that  the 
life  history  of  this  insect  FlG-  7Q(~ 
has  not  been  carefully 
worked  out,  and  there  remains  considerable  uncertainty 
regarding  the  length  of  time  necessary  for  a  generation 
or  the  number  of  generations  in  a  year.  Chittenden 
says  that  some  experiments  he  was  then  conducting 
went  to  prove  at  least  four  generations  a  year.  He  had 
carried  the  species  through  all  of  its  stages  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  in  eight  weeks. 

Methods  of  control.  —  When  this  pest  is  found  in 
stored  grain  it  can  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  carbon  bisul- 
fide. The  liquid  should  be  poured  in  a  shallow  dish 
and  set  on  top  of  the  grain  in  the  box  or  bin.  The  receptacle 
should  then  be  covered  tightly  with  old  blankets  and 
allowed  to  stand  two  or  three  days. 


258  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

If  flour,  meal,  or  other  cereals  become  badly  infested 
and  the  larvae  build  their  tubes  all  through  it,  the  material 
will  probably  have  to  be  fed  to  stock  or  thrown  away.  In 
other  cases  the  same  methods  of  control  will  avail  for  this 
insect  that  were  described  as  efficient  for  the  control  of 
the  Mediterranean  flour  moth. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  MEAL  SNOUT-MOTH 

1889.     RiLEY-HowARD.  —  Range  of  Pyralis  farinalis.     Insect  Life, 
Vol.  2,  p.  194. 

1893.  OSBORN,  HERBERT.  —  Methods  of    treating   insects   affect- 
ing grasses  and  forage  plants.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  6,  pp.  72,  78, 
193. 

1895.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  more  important  insects  injurious 
to  stored  grain.     Yearbook,  U.S.  Dept.  Agri.,  1894,  p.  286. 

1894.  OSBORN,  HERBERT.  —  The  clover-hay  worm.     Bull.  32  (old 
ser.),  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  49. 

1896.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 
United  States.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.   119. 

1896.  QUAINTANCE,  A.  L.  —  The  meal  snout-moth.     Bull.  36,  Fla. 
Expt.  Stat.,  p.  362. 

1897.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Some  insects  injurious  to  stored  grain. 
Farmers'  Bull.  45,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  10. 

1900.    FLETCHER,  JAMES. —  Notes  from  Canada.    Bull.  26,  Bu. 
Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  96. 


THE   GRANARY  WEEVIL 

Calandra  granaria 

Nearly  every  kind  of  small  insect  that  is  found  in  stored 
grains  and  cereals  is  commonly  called  a  weevil.  Really 
there  are  only  two  insects  that  frequent  these  food-stuffs 
that  should  properly  be  called  weevils  and  these  are  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS 


259 


small  snout  beetles  known  as  the  granary  weevil  and  the 
rice  weevil. 

Both  of  these  beetles  resemble  each  other  very  closely 
in  size,  shape,  and  general  appearance.  They  are  both 
widely  distributed  in  this  country,  although  the  first  one, 
C.  granaria,  is  a  more  cosmopolitan  species  than  the  second. 

The  granary  weevil  is  a  very  old  offender,  for  it  has  been 
known  as  a  grain  weevil  from  the  earliest  times.  It  has 
been  an  inhabitant  of  houses,  barns, 
and  granaries  so  long  that  it  has 
actually  lost  the  use  of  its  wings  and 
is  now  strictly  an  indoor  species. 
It  is  probably  present  in  every  state 
in  the  Union,  for  it  has  become 
widely  distributed  by  being  carried 
in  the  grains  which  it  infests.  It 
is  undoubtedly  more  abundant  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  country, 
where  it  breeds  the  year  round. 

It  is  injurious  to  wheat,  corn, 
barley,  and  other  grains.  We  have 
found  it  in  shredded  wheat  biscuits, 
even  on  Pullman  dining  cars,  where 
one  pays  for  the  best  quality  of 
foods.  It  sometimes  finds  its  way 
pearl  barley,  which  is  used  in  soups. 

The  mature  beetle  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long 
and  of  a  shining  chestnut-brown  color.  It  has  a  long 
slender  snout,  or  proboscis,  on  the  end  of  which  is  a  pair 
of  tiny  but  very  efficient  jaws.  The  thorax  is  marked  with 
shallow  oval  punctures,  while  the  wing  covers  are  grooved 
and  ridged  lengthwise  and  are  uniformly  brown  (Fig.  80). 


FIG.  80.  —  The  granary 
weevil.     (X  17.) 

into  households  in 


260  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  female  weevil  gnaws  a  tiny  hole  in  a  kernel  of  wheat 
or  corn  and  then  deposits  an  egg  in  it.  The  egg  hatches 
and  the  small  white  grub  lives  inside  the  kernel,  eating  out 
the  dry  inner  portions.  In  a  kernel  of  corn  there  may  be 
several  individuals,  but  in  a  grain  of  wheat  or  barley  there 
is  room  for  but  one.  The  larva  is  short,  fleshy,  and 
footless.  When  the  larva  becomes  full-grown  it  changes 
to  a  white  pupa  with  the  proboscis,  legs,  wing  pads,  and 
antennae  plainly  developed. 

The  whole  life  cycle  may  be  passed  under  favorable 
conditions  in  about  six  weeks,  but  the  period  will  vary  with 
the  temperature  and  time  of  year.  In  the  fall  and  winter 
it  is  liable  to  be  greatly  prolonged.  Under  favorable 
conditions  there  may  be  three  or  four  broods  in  New  York 
in  a  season,  but  in  the  extreme  South  there  may  be  six 
or  more.  If  the  infested  grain  is  kept  in  a  well-heated 
room,  the  weevils  may  breed  all  the  season  through.  It  is 
said  that  the  granary  weevil  is  very  prolific,  with  the  egg- 
laying  extending  over  a  long  time  and  many  eggs  being 
deposited.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  single  pair  of 
weevils  may,  in  a  year,  give  rise  to  6000  descendants. 
Thus  a  pair  of  these  insects  with  their  progeny  may  cause 
a  good  deal  of  damage  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

The  mature  weevils  have  the  habit  of  feeding  on  the 
grain,  gnawing  into  the  kernels  for  food  and  shelter, 
and  since  they  are  long-lived  insects,  they  probably  cause 
as  much  injury  as  the  larvse. 

A  curious,  interesting,  and  perhaps  important  bit  of 
knowledge  concerning  this  insect  is  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  used  successfully  as  a  substitute  for  the  Spanish 
blister-beetle  (Cantharides)  with  this  added  advantage, 
that  it  does  not  produce  strangury.  It  was  apparently 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO   CEREALS  261 

used  for  this  purpose  in  the  South,  perhaps  during  the 
war,  when  the  Spanish  beetles  were  not  obtainable.  So 
far  as  the  author  is  aware,  however,  the  granary  weevils 
are  not  generally  used  for  that  purpose  at  present. 

Cantharadin  is  a  most  dangerous  and  violent  drug  to 
take  internally.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  finely  ground 
bodies  of  the  granary  weevils,  since  they  seem  to  possess 
much  the  same  qualities  as  the  Spanish  flies,  are  also 
dangerous  when  taken  into  the  alimentary  canal.  In 
that  case,  flour  containing  the  pulverized  bodies  of  these 
insects  might  prove  seriously  injurious  to  persons  eating 
it.  Undoubtedly  flour  is  often  made  from  wheat  that  is 
badly  infested  with  these  weevils. 


THE   RICE  WEEVIL 

Calandra  oryzae 

The  rice  weevil   seems  to  have   originated  in   India, 
whence  it  has  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  world.     Because 
it  was  first  found  in  rice  it  has  always  been  known  as 
the  rice  weevil.     It  is  undoubtedly  the  more 
important  and  more  injurious  weevil  of  the 
two  in  this  country,  although  it  may  not 
be  as  widely  distributed  as  the  first  one. 
It  occurs  especially  in  warm  countries  and 
for  that  reason  is  very  abundant  and  in- 
jurious in  our  Southern  states. 

The  rice  weevil  is  very  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  the  granary  weevil.  It  is  just  about 
the  same  size,  with  a  similar  proboscis,  but  .'  81-~T?e 

,  i    11    i  •  i        •  weevil. 

varies  m  being  dull  brown  m  color  in  con-      (x  7.) 


262  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

trast  to  the  shining  brown  of  the  granary  weevil. 
Perhaps  the  most  obvious  difference  by  which  the  two 
weevils  may  be  readily  separated  is  the  fact  that  the  wing 
covers  of  the  rice  weevil  have  four  red  spots,  one  on  each 
outer  corner,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  81).  The 
thorax  of  the  rice  weevil  is  closely  pitted  with  round 
punctures  in  contrast  to  the  oval,  shallow  punctures 
present  on  the  thorax  of  the  granary  weevil.  Moreover, 
the  wings  of  the  rice  weevil  are  well  developed  and  the 
insect  can  fly  very  readily. 

The  rice  weevil  is  more  apt  to  be  found  in  households 
than  the  granary  weevil,  for  it  feeds  upon  the  grains  of 
rice  and  often  invades  boxes  of 
crackers,  cakes,  and  other  bread- 
stuffs,  and  is  found  in  barrels 
of  flour  and  sacks  of  meal. 

The  eggs  are  laid  within  a 
kernel  of  corn  or  grain  of  wheat, 
where  they  hatch  in  about  three 

FIG.  82.  —  Larva  of  the  rice        ,  r™        ,  •       i.      t    *  A 

weevil,    (x  10.)  days.     Ihe  larva  is  short,  tat, 

and  whitish  (Fig.  82)  and  lives 

within  the  grain  for  about  sixteen  days,  when  it  trans- 
forms to  a  pupa  (Fig.  83)  which  remains  quietly  within 
the  grain  from  three  to  nine  days.  The  adult  beetle 
does  not  emerge  from  the  grain  as  soon  as  it  is  formed, 
but  remains  within  the  kernel  eating  out  the  inside  for 
several  days.  The  life  cycle  is  usually  passed,  under 
favorable  conditions,  in  about  thirty-five  days.  The 
adults  are  found  in  the  fields  during  the  summer,  espe- 
cially on  the  ears  of  corn.  In  the  autumn  they  migrate 
to  the  barns  and  granaries  where  their  food  is  stored. 
Methods  of  controlling  the  grain  weevils.  —  The  most 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS  263 

effective  method  of  dealing  with  the  grain  weevils  is  by 
the  use  of  carbon  bisulfide.  It  has  been  shown,  by 
recent  experiments,  that  this  liquid  should  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  2  or  3  pounds  to  every  1000  cubic  feet  of 
space. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  keeping  seed  corn,  seed  peas, 
beans,  popcorn,  and  other  seeds,  is  to  store  them  in  tight 
dry  goods  boxes.  The  boxes  should  be  filled  within  3  or 
4  inches  of  the  top.  When  infested  with 
the  weevils,  the  required  amount  of  the 
carbon  bisulfide  may  be  poured  into  a 
shallow  tin  basin  or  pan  and  set  on  top 
of  the  grain.  The  top  of  the  box  should 
then  be  covered  with  two  or  three  heavy 
blankets  to  keep  in  the  fumes.  The 
liquid  will  readily  evaporate  and  the 
heavy  gas  will  settle  down  through  the 
grain  killing  everything  in  it. 

The   precaution  should   be  taken    of 
not  going  near  the  boxes  with  a  lighted  FIG.  83.  —  Pupa  of 
lantern  or  fire  of  any  kind  until  after      gfjg*  weeviL 
the  blankets  have  been  removed  and  the 
gas  has  dissipated  itself  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

Of  course,  where  a  cereal  or  box  of  crackers  is  found  to 
have  become  infested  by  the  weevils  it  may  be  necessary 
to  throw  them  away  entirely.  An  infested  pantry  or 
storeroom  should  be  carefully  cleaned  and  all  the  rem- 
nants of  material  that  may  be  attractive  to  the  weevils 
thrown  away.  If  a  storeroom  is  so  situated  that  a 
continuous  heat  of  130  degrees  can  be  maintained  for 
several  hours,  the  weevils  in  all  of  their  stages  may  be 
killed. 


264  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  GRAIN  WEEVILS 

1869.     WALSH,  B.  D.,  and  RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Poisonous  flour.     Amer. 

Ent,  Vol.  1,  p.  179. 
1897.     CHITIENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Some  insects  injurious  to  stored  grain. 

Farmers'  Bull.  45,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  4-6. 

1911.  HINDS,  W.  E.,  and  TURNER,  W.  F.  —  Life  history  of  the  rice 
weevil  (Ccdandra  on/zee)  in  Alabama.     Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  4, 
pp.  230-236. 

1912.  SANDERSON,  E.  D.  —  Grain-weevils.     Insect  pests  of  farm, 
garden,  and  orchard,  pp.  186-187. 

1912.     GIRAULT,  A.  A.  —  Insects  injurious  to  stored  grains  and  their 
ground  products.     Bull.  156,  Illinois  Expt.  Stat,  pp.  80-81. 


FRUIT-FLIES 

Drosophila  sps. 

Fifty-nine  species  of  the  genus  Drosophila  have  been 
listed  as  occurring  in  North  America.  Over  thirty  of 
these  have  been  recorded  from  the  United  States.  Some 
of  these  species,  as  D.  funebris,  D.  graminum,  and  D. 
transversa,  are  also  common  to  Europe.  D.  ampelopkila 
is  also  recorded  from  South  Europe  and  North  Africa. 
The  flies  of  the  genus  Drosophila,  for  the  most  part,  breed 
in  decaying  and  fermenting  fruit.  The  slender  white 
maggots  are  found  in  pomace,  about  cider  mills,  and  they 
are  abundant  about  vinegar  factories,  often  working  into 
the  barrels  around  the  openings.  The  flies  are  always 
abundant  in  the  fall  about  grapes,  bananas,  pears,  and 
other  fruits,  especially  if  the  fruit  has  begun  to  decay. 
If  the  fruit  is  left  standing  in  the  pantry  or  on  the  side- 
board, it  is  almost  sure  to  become  infested  with  these  tiny 
flies,  and  no  amount  of  ordinary  screening  will  keep  them 
out  because  they  go  through  the  meshes  of  common  wire 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS     265 

screens.  They  are  also  abundant  in  decaying  fruit  in 
apple  orchards  and  their  larvae  are  sometimes  mistaken 
for  those  of  the  apple  maggot,  Rhagoletis  pomonella. 

It  should  be  said  that  not  all  of  the  species  of  the  genus 
Drosophila  live  in  fruit.  Some  of  the  species  mine  in  the 
leaves  of  plants,  especially  cabbages  and  radishes.  These 
species  have  been  separated  from  the  genus  by  some  au- 
thorities and  placed  in  the  genus  Scaptomyza.  Most 
authors,  however,  recognize  this  only  as  a  subgenus. 


FIG.  84.  — A  fruit-fly  (D.  ampelophila).     (X  10.) 

Probably  the  most  common  species  of  fruit-flies  in  this 
country  are  D.  ampelophila  (Fig.  84)  and  D.  amcena. 
These  are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  their 
wings  are  rather  large  proportionately.  Their  bodies  are 
reddish-brown  in  color  and  clothed  with  rather  stiff  hairs. 

The  tiny,  white,  elongated  egg  is  deposited  by  the  female 
in  the  soft  pulp  of  the  decaying  fruit.  During  the  month 
of  October  Comstock  found  the  duration  of  the  egg  stage 
to  be  from  three  to  five  days. 

The  larva  is  a  slender  white  maggot  about  j  of  an  inch 
in  length.  It  takes  from  three  to  five  days  for  it  to  mature. 
When  full-grown  it  changes  to  a  brownish  pupa  (Fig.  85) 


266  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

within  or  about  the  apple.  It  does  not  go  into  the  ground 
like  the  larva  of  the  apple  maggot.  The  pupal  stage  lasts 
three  to  five  days  also,  and  the  adult  fly  is  ready  to  de- 
posit eggs  within  two  or  three  days.  Thus  a  single  genera- 
tion of  these  fruit-flies  may  be  produced  in  eleven  days. 
The  larvae  of  the  fruit-flies  are  some- 
times injurious  to  grapes  on  the  vines. 
W.  L.  Devereau  of  Clyde,  New  York,  found 
that  these  maggots  completely  ate  out 
the  insides  of  grapes  first  injured  by  being 
pecked  by  birds  while  still  hanging  on  the 
vines.  Moreover,  the  maggots  actually 
bore  from  one  grape  to  another.  Forbes 
relates  the  same  habit  of  the  larvae  at 
Moline,  Illinois.  He  says  they  attack 
most  frequently  the  grapes  that  have  been 
injured  by  birds  or  rot,  and  after  once 
having  begun  on  a  cluster  they  bore  from 
one  grape  to  another,  while  the  adults  are 
FIG.  85.  —  Pupa  constantly  depositing  more  eggs,  thus 
^iiedUit"fly>  fina%  destroying  all  of  the  berries  in  a 

cluster. 

The  maggots  not  only  attack  decaying  fruit,  but  they 
are  often  found  in  canned  and  pickled  fruits.  Bowles 
says  that  he  found  the  maggots  in  an  earthen  jar  that  had 
been  nearly  filled  with  raspberries  and  vinegar  prepared 
for  the  purpose  of  making  raspberry  vinegar.  On  open- 
ing the  jar  ten  days  afterward  it  was  found  swarming 
with  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the  fruit-fly.  Hundreds  of 
the  maggots  were  crawling  about  on  the  under  side  of  the 
cover  and  on  the  sides  of  the  jar.  He  further  states  that 
he  has  seen  the  flies  hovering  about  the  corks  of  wine  jars, 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  CEREALS  267 

evidently  trying  to  find  an  opportunity  to  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  contents.  In  fact,  he  placed  a  few  rasp- 
berries in  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar  in  a  jar  with  a  loose 
cover.  A  fortnight  afterward  he  found  a  number  of 
larvae  inside  the  jar  and  several  pupae  attached  to  its  sides. 
Evidently  these  pests  search  for  cracks  and  crevices 
through  which  to  enter  and  find  their  way  to  their  food. 
Probably  the  flies  often  deposit  their  eggs  around  the  edges 
of  covers  to  jars,  and  the  maggots,  when  they  hatch, 
manage  to  work  their  way  through  small  openings  into  the 
fruit. 

Lintner  relates  an  instance  of  a  species  of  Drosophila 
breeding  in  flour  paste.  A  correspondent  wrote  him,  say- 
ing :  "  I  send  a  package  containing  larvae  of  a  fly  very 
troublesome  around  my  cellar  and  pantry.  These  I  found 
in  a  little  paste  that  I  had  set  aside  for  a  short  time.  I 
could  not  obtain  the  flies,  but  presume  that  they  will 
be  produced  from  the  larvae.  They  are  very  partial  to 
anything  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  and  if  my  pickled 
fruit  or  jam  begins  to  sour,  they  find  it  before  I  do,  and 
frequently  the  entire  top  of  the  fruit  seems  alive  with  the 
larvae,  although  they  never  go  deep  into  the  jar."  The 
flies  emerged,  but  Lintner  judged  them  to  be  a  new  species 
and  not  the  D.  ampelophila,  which  was  probably  the  species 
referred  to  by  the  correspondent  as  infesting  his  pickled 
fruit. 

Cockerell  found  the  Drosophila  flies  prevalent  in  the  Salt 
River  Valley  of  Arizona  in  orange  orchards  and  he  con- 
cludes that  it  may  be  responsible  for  spreading  the  black 
rot  of  the  navel  orange.  He  argues  that  since  the  flies 
breed  in  the  rotting  oranges  they  no  doubt  become  dusted 
with  the  spores  of  the  fungus  and  carry  them  to  the  open 


268  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

ends  of  sound  oranges,  where  infection  might  take 
place. 

Methods  of  control.  —  It  has  been  our  experience  that 
ordinary  wire  screen,  say  12  or  14  meshes  to  the  inch, 
does  not  prevent  these  flies  from  entering  a  house.  Pos- 
sibly wire  screen  with  16  meshes  to  the  inch  might  keep 
them  out.  We  doubt  the  practicability  of  effectually 
screening  these  flies  from  houses  on  account  of  their  small 
size. 

It  is  evident  from  their  habits  of  entering  crevices  and 
cracks  of  fruit  jars  that,  in  order  to  exclude  them,  the  jars 
must  be  hermetically  sealed,  or  practically  so.  All  fruit 
that  is  canned  while  hot  and  then  hermetically  sealed 
with  rubber  bands  or  otherwise  will  be  safe  from  the  attacks 
of  these  flies.  Pickled  fruits  in  stone  jars  with  loose  tops 
are  subject  to  attack  by  these  flies. 

Jars  of  fruit  that  are  opened  now  and  then  and  left 
loosely  covered  must  be  placed  inside  of  some  tight 
receptacle  for  protection  where  these  fruit  flies  are  present. 
In  case  the  maggots  have  gained  access  to  a  jar  of  fruit 
it  is  not  necessary  to  throw  away  the  whole  jar  since 
the  larvae  occur  only  among  the  top  layers.  The  infested 
portions  may  be  thrown  away  when  the  remainder  will 
be  found  free  from  the  maggots  and  usually  in  perfectly 
good  condition.  Fruit,  if  left  standing  in  the  pantry, 
kitchen,  or  on  the  sideboard,  must  be  kept  free  from 
all  decayed  specimens  or  must  be  tightly  covered 
from  the  flies.  It  is  not  so  much  the  destructiveness 
of  the  flies  that  we  desire  to  avoid  in  these  cases  as  it 
is  the  annoying  presence  of  them  in  our  pantries  and 
dining  rooms.  They  are  always  suggestive  of  overripe 
and  decaying  fruit. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CEREALS  269 


REFERENCES   TO    ECONOMIC    LITERATURE    ON   THE    FRUIT-FLIES 

1882.     LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  The  pickled  fruit-fly.     First  Report,  pp. 

216-221. 
1882.     BOWLES,  G.  J.  —  The  pickled  fruit-fly,  Drosophila  ampeloph- 

ila.     Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  101. 
1882.     COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  The  pomace-flies.     Report  of  the  U.  S. 

Entomologist  for  1881,  p.  198. 
1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  fruit-flies  or  vinegar  flies.     Bull.  4, 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Bu.  Ent.,  p.  109. 
1899.    COCKERELL,   T.   D.   A.— The  Drosophila  fly.     Bull.  32, 

Arizona  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  290. 


OCCASIONAL  PESTS   OF  THE   PANTRY 

There  are  two  weevils  that  occur  in  peas  and  beans  that 
are  liable  to  be  found  in  the  household  among  these  edibles. 
One  of  them  is  often  found  in  numbers  in  stored  beans,  for 
it  breeds  among  the  beans  and  badly  injures  them. 

The  pea  weevil,  Bruchus  pisorum,  is  about  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  in  length  and  the  wing  covers  are  marked  with 
white  and  black  spots.  It  is  an  old  enemy  to  peas  and 
does  considerable  injury  farther  South.  The  adult  beetle 
deposits  its  eggs  singly  on  the  surface  of  the  young  pods 
in  the  field.  The  egg  hatches  and  the  young  larva  bores 
through  the  pod  and  enters  one  of  the  green  peas.  Many 
times  every  pea  in  a  pod  is  infested.  In  these  cases  we 
certainly  often  eat  one  or  more  of  the  larvae  in  the  green 
peas,  for  each  one  remains  practically  invisible  within  the 
pea. 

The  bean  weevil,  Bruchus  obtectus  (Fig.  86),  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  pea  weevil  and  is  not  so  conspicuously 
marked,  although  the  wing  covers  are  mottled  with  light 
and  dark  spots. 


270 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


The  bean  weevil,  besides  laying  its  eggs  in  beans  in  the 
field  and  developing  there,  also  breeds  in  beans  after 
they  are  harvested  and  stored.  In  stored  beans  they 
cause  an  immense  amount  of  damage,  often  destroying 
them  for  either  food  or  seed  purposes.  It  also  breeds  in 
dried  peas,  causing  similar  injury. 

Stored  beans  may  be  protected  from  this  weevil  by  the 
use  of  carbon  bisulfide  or  heat,  as  already  described  in 
the  case  of  the  grain  weevils. 

The  broad-horned  flour-beetle 
(Echocerus  cornutus)  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  houses.  In 
Europe  it  Is  reported  as  a  pest 
in  bakeries.  It  seems  to  get 
into  the  flour  and  into  the 
dough  that  accumulates  on  the 
molds  used  in  baking  bread. 

The  species  does  not  seem  to 
be  widely  distributed  in  the 
United  States,  although  it  is 
fairly  common  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  In  California  it  occurs 
both  indoors  and  outside  under 
bark.  It  is,  therefore,  firmly 

established  and  acclimatized  in  that  region.  It  has 
been  reported  from  the  Pacific  Coast  in  all  stages  of 
development  in  ground  cereals  of  the  stores. 

The  beetle  itself,  especially  the  female,  resembles  closely 
the  confused  and  the  rust-red  flour-beetles.  The  male, 
however,  possesses  broad  mandibular  horns,  that  dis- 
tinguishes it  at  once  from  the  two  flour-beetles  mentioned. 
The  habits  and  food  of  the  broad-horned  flour-beetles 


FIG.  86.  —  Bean  weevil. 
(X  8.) 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CEREALS  271 

are  similar  to  those  of  the  confused  flour-beetle.  The 
beetles  can  be  controlled  in  the  same  way  as  explained 
for  the  other  flour-beetles. 

The  coffee  bean-weevil  (Arcecerus  fasdculatus)  is  another 
insect  that  may  probably  be  looked  for  as  a  household 
pest.  It  has  a  world-wide  distribution,  having  been  carried 
all  over  the  world  through  the  activities  of  commerce. 
It  infests  the  raw  berries  of  coffee,  cacao  beans,  mace,  and 
other  tropical  vegetable  products.  In  this  country,  it 
has  been  found  attacking  cornstalks  in  the  field,  and  breed- 
ing in  cotton  bolls,  in  the  fruit  of  the  chinaberry  tree, 
in  the  pods  of  the  coffee  weed,  and  in  the  seeds  of  the  wild 
indigo  plant.  Chittenden  records  an  interesting  outbreak 
of  this  weevil  in  a  grocery  store  in  Washington,  D.C. 
The  weevils  had  apparently  been  introduced  into  the  store 
in  bags  of  coffee.  They  had  afterwards  attacked  dried 
apples,  fig  cakes,  and  other  edibles  in  the  store.  It  would 
be  easy  for  them  to  be  introduced  into  households  pur- 
chasing supplies  from  the  infested  grocery. 

There  are  several  other  insects  that  may  occasionally 
be  found  in  stored  vegetable  products  and  which  may  find 
their  way,  at  times,  into  the  household.  It  is  quite  likely 
that  some  of  these  occasional  pests  may  become  serious 
in  some  cases ;  and  it  is  easily  possible  that  some  of  them 
may  become  more  or  less  habitual  household  pests. 
Insects  are  constantly  changing  their  food  habits  and  we 
may  expect  new  pests  at  almost  any  time.  Chittenden, 
in  Bulletin  96,  Part  I,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Entomology,  gives  a  list  of  76  different  species  of  insects 
that  are  found  in  stored  cereals,  any  one  of  which  is  prob- 
ably capable  of  becoming  a  household  pest  at  any  time. 


CHAPTER  XI 

INSECTS   INJURIOUS    TO   MEATS,    CHEESE,   AND 
CONDIMENTS 

SMOKED  and  dry-cured  meats  of  nearly  all  kinds  are 
subject  to  injury  from  the  larvse  of  certain  beetles, 
while  cheese  is  often  attacked  by  myriads  of  mites  and 
the  larvse  of  certain  flies.  Condiments,  like  ginger, 
pepper,  and  other  spices,  together  with  various  drugs 
stored  in  the  pantry,  are  also  seriously  damaged  by  the 
larvae  of  a  few  small  beetles.  Fortunately,  most  of 
these  pests  are  not  frequent  visitors  of  the  household. 

THE  LARDER  BEETLE 

Dermestes  lardarius 

Ham,  bacon,  and  other  kinds  of  meats  that  happen  to  be 
stored  in  the  larder  are  sometimes  attacked  by  small, 
brown,  hairy  larvse,  about  one-half  inch  long  when  full- 
grown,  that  often  cause  considerable  injury  and  become 
the  source  of  a  good  deal  of  worry  to  the  housekeeper. 
The  larva  may  be  recognized  by  its  hairy  body,  and  its 
meat-eating  habits  together  with  the  fact  that  it  bears 
two  short,  curved,  stiff  spines  on  the  top  of  the  last  ab- 
dominal segment.  These  larvae  not  only  attack  food 
products,  but  they  feed  upon  horn,  hoofs,  skins,  beeswax, 
feathers,  and  hair,  and,  moreover,  become  pests  upon 
272 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS  273 

specimens  in  natural  history  museums,  often  seriously 
injuring  valuable  collections.  The  adult  is  a  small  beetle 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  dark  brown 
in  color,  and  with  a  rounded  back  and  front  (Fig.  87). 
It  has  a  pale  yellowish-brown  band  across  the  anterior 
half  of  its  wing  covers.  There  are,  on  this  band,  six 
black  dots,  three  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line.  The 
first  name  of  the  beetle,  Dermestes,  is  derived  from  Derma, 
skin,  and  is  indicative  of  its  habits,  while  its  specific  name, 
lardarius,  shows  its  taste  for  the  pantry  or  larder.  More- 
over, this  beetle  belongs  to  the  same 
family  to  which  the  carpet  beetles  belong 
and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  larvae  have 
some  of  the  same  habits  as  the  carpet 
beetles,  namely,  eating  museum  speci- 
mens, skins,  and  feathers. 

The  larder  beetle  is  widely  distributed 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Some  years  ago,  a  closely  allied  species, 
D.  mtlpinus,  swarmed  to  such  an  extent 
in  large  skin  warehouses  in  London  and  caused  so  much 
damage  that  a  prize  of  £20,000  was  offered  for  a  prac- 
tical and  effectual  remedy.  Evidently  the  habits  of  the 
whole  family  of  Dermestid  beetles  are  much  alike. 

The  adult  beetles  (Fig.  87)  are  often  found  out-doors, 
hiding  away  in  nooks  and  crevices  during  the  winter. 
We  have  found  them  hiding  in  crevices  of  the  bark  on 
trees.  They  enter  the  house  in  May  and  June  and  seek 
for  food  upon  which  to  lay  their  eggs.  If  none  can  be 
found,  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  cracks  and  crevices 
about  the  pantry  where  the  larvae,  when  they  hatch,  can 
find  food.  The  larvae  do  not  burrow  into  the  hams  they 


274 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


attack,  at  least  not  at  first,  but  tend  to  confine  themselves 
to  the  outside.  Later,  after  casting  their  hairy  skins 
several  times,  they  burrow  farther  into  the  meat,  where 
they  change  to  pupae.  Moreover,  they  seem  to  prefer 
the  fatty  portions  more  than  the  lean  muscular  parts. 
It  has  been  observed  that  the  larvae 
(Fig.  88)  tend  to  infest  hams  that 
are  beginning  to  spoil  rather  than 
fresh  ones. 

From  the  meager  and  fragmentary 
accounts  of  the  life  history  of  this 
insect  that  we  have  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  the  larder  beetle  may 
reproduce  itself,  under  favorable 
conditions,  quite  fast  and  that  there 
may  be  several  generations  during  a 
season.  Miss  Heustis  tells  us  that 
she  placed  four  beetles,  three  males 
and  one  female,  in  a  glass  jar  with 

a  piece  of  meat  on  which  she  had 

found  them  feeding.  She  saw  the 
female  deposit  eggs  on  the  meat,  but  had  to  leave  before 
they  hatched.  She  was  gone  five  weeks  and  on  her 
return  found  a  large  and  flourishing  colony  of  larvae,  most 
of  them  full-grown.  Horn  found  that  the  pupal  stage 
lasted  three  or  four  days  to  a  week  or  more,  depending 
upon  the  temperature.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  a  genera- 
tion may  be  produced  in  the  neighborhood  of  45  to  50  days, 
and  there  may  be  four  or  five  generations  in  a  season. 

Lintner  quotes  the  following  letter  from  a  correspondent, 
which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  injuries  caused  by  this 
insect :  — 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS  275 

"Inclosed  you  will  find  several  bugs  and  larvae  which 
I  found  destroying  our  bacon.  Will  you  please  tell  me 
what  they  are,  and  if  there  is  any  way  of  preventing  their 
ravages  ?  Our  meat  was  mostly  put  in  heavy  meat  sacks ; 
some  was  in  muslin  lined  with  paper,  and  a  few  pieces  were 
without  either.  The  meat  wras  encased  in  sacks  about 
the  first  of  March  and  hung  up  in  the  garret.  The  sides 
were  free  from  them  although  without  sacks.  If  there 
is  a  remedy  please  let  us  have  it." 

Probably,  in  this  instance,  the  eggs  were  laid  on  the  meat 
before  it  was  incased  or  the  beetles  found  access  to  the 
bacon  through  openings  or  cracks  in  the  wrapping. 

Methods  of  control.  —  In  the  first  place,  the  adult 
beetles  are  easily  seen  and  they  may  be  caught  by  hand. 
This  is  one  way  of  dealing  with  them,  and,  in  cases  where 
they  are  not  too  abundant,  it  may  be  the  most  satisfactory 
and  eventually  the  most  effective.  Cheese  is  very  at- 
tractive to  the  beetles  and  by  exposing  pieces  of  it  here 
and  there  they  will  congregate  on  them  and  may  be  caught 
and  killed  by  hand  in  considerable  numbers.  If  this 
method  is  followed  up  carefully  for  several  days,  it  may 
often  prove  effectual. 

If  the  beetles  are  abundant  and  there  are  many  hiding 
places,  the  room  in  which  they  are  present  should  be 
entirely  cleared  of  food  products  and  anything  else  that 
may  interfere  with  the  work  of  cleaning.  The  store- 
room should  then  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  finally 
sprayed  with  benzine  or  fumigated  with  carbon  bisulfide 
or  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Cheese  ground  up  and  poisoned  with  arsenic  and  then 
placed  in  the  haunts  of  the  beetles  will  often  kill  many  of 
them.  In  putting  away  hams,  and  shoulders  they 


276  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

should  be  bagged  just  as  early  as  possible  after  being 
cured  and  should  be  wrapped  with  great  care.  The 
wrapping  cannot  be  made  too  tight,  for  the  least  opening 
or  crack  will  allow  the  entrance  of  the  beetle  to  deposit 
its  eggs. 

If  a  ham  or  similar  article  of  food  should  become  in- 
fested with  the  grubs,  the  part  containing  them  should 
be  cut  away  and  destroyed  by  burning  or  otherwise,  and 
the  remaining  part  of  the  meat  treated  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  LARDER  BEETLE 

1861.     HORN,  GEORGE  H.  —  Notes  on  the  habits  of  some  coleopter- 
ous larvae  and  pupae.     Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil,  Vol.  1,  p.  28. 

1869.  WALSH,  B.  D.,  and  RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Museum  pests.    Amer. 
Ent.,  Vol.  1,  p.  248. 

1870.  RILEY,   C.   V.— The  larder  beetle.     Amer.   Ent.,  Vol.  2, 
pp.  246,  308. 

1873.  SAUNDERS,  W.  —  The  bacon  beetle.     Can.   Ent.,  Vol.  5, 
pp.  171-172. 

1874.  WILLIAMS,  JOSEPH.  —  The  bacon  beetle.     Fourth  Rept.  Ent. 
Soc.  Ont.  for  1873,  pp.  26-27. 

1878.     HEUSTIS,  CAROLINE  E.  —  Some  observations  on  Dermestes 
Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  141-142. 

1888.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  — The  bacon   beetle   attacks  comb.     Bee 
Keepers'  Magazine,  May,  1888,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  143-144. 

1889.  FERNALD,  C.  H.  — Household  pests.    Bull.  Mass.  Hatch 
Expt.  Stat.,  No.  5,  p.  6. 

1890.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  The  bacon  beetle.      Sixth  Rept.  N.  Y. 
Ins.,  pp.  119-123. 

1894.    PERKINS,  G.  H.  — Household  pests.    Eighth  Ann.  Rept. 

Vt.  Agri.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  125-126. 
1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  larder  beetle.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  107-108. 
1906.    LOCHHEAD,  WM.  —  Household  insects.    Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  38, 

p.  68. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  MEATS 


277 


THE   RED-LEGGED   HAM   BEETLE 

Necrobia  rufipes 

This  is  a  small  steel-blue  beetle  (Fig.  89)  scarcely  more 
than  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Different  individuals 
vary  considerably  in  size  and  many  of  them  are  less  than 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  legs  of  this  beetle  are 
reddish  colored,  hence  its  name  red- 
legged  ham  beetle.  Most  of  the 
beetles  belonging  to  the  family  of 
this  ham  beetle  live  upon  flowers  or 
on  living  animal  matter,  but  the 
ham  beetle  seems  to  prefer  dead 
animal  matter  as  food.  The  beetles 
are  found  about  dead  animal  matter 
in  fields  or  other  situations. 

The  larvae  of  this  beetle  have 
been  guilty  and  are  still  guilty  of 
causing  serious  damage  to  stored 
hams,  although  they  are  not  confined 
to  this  class  of  meat. 

Life  history.  —  The  beetle  normally  feeds  and  spends 
its  life  history  on  dead  animals  in  the  field.  However, 
in  May  or  June  the  adults  which  emerge  at  this  time 
probably  often  find  their  way  into  storerooms  and 
pantries.  Here  the  mother  beetle  deposits  her  tiny 
eggs  upon  ham  if  she  can  find  this  meat  accessible.  These 
small  whitish  eggs,  twenty-five  of  which  would  not  reach 
more  than  an  inch,  soon  hatch  into  tiny  white  grubs,  each 
with  a  brown  head  and  two  small  hooks  or  tubercles  at 
the  tip  of  the  body.  The  grubs  burrow  into  the  outside 


FIG.   89.  —  Red-legged 
ham  beetle.     (X  8.) 


278  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

layers  of  fat  just  beneath  the  rind  and  grow  rather  rapidly, 
for  they  are  ravenous  eaters.  As  they  multiply  and  grow 
they  seem  to  have  a  great  fondness  for  the  hollow  in  the 
bone  at  the  butt  end  of  the  ham,  for  they  congregate  here 
in  numbers.  When  full-grown  the  grubs  are  darker  in 
color,  slightly  over  half  an  inch  long,  and  have  a  number 
of  brown  patches  on  the  upper  sides 
of  their  bodies  (Fig.  90). 

When  the  larva  gets  ready  to  trans- 
form it  makes  a  curious  and  interesting 
cocoon  in  a  rather  novel  way.  The 
larva  leaves  the  fatty  portions  and 
gnaws  its  way  either  to  the  harder, 
more  fibrous  parts  of  the  ham  or 
maybe  into  a  near-by  beam.  Here  it 
makes  a  glistening  white  cocoon  that 
looks  much  like  paper.  The  cocoon  is 
FIG.  90.  — Larva  of  not  made  from  silk  like  the  cocoons 

the  red-legged  ham       <•  .     •  i  IP 

beetle,  enlarged.         of    most    insects,    but    IS    Composed    of 

small  globules  spit  out  of  the  mouth 
of  the  larva.  These  globules  adhere  to  each  other  and 
when  dry  form  the  paper-like  cocoon.  Dealers  in  hams 
and  other  meats  have  given  this  insect  the  name  of 
"paper  worm"  from  the  appearance  of  the  cocoon. 
Riley  says  that  there  are  probably  several  broods  a  year, 
but  that  it  always  passes  the  winter  as  a  larva. 

Distribution  and  injuries.  —  This  ham  beetle  is  widely 
distributed  over  this  country  and  is  also  found  in  Europe, 
Australia,  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies.  Nearly  all  of  the 
specimens  in  our  University  collection  came  from  the 
Western  states,  for  it  seems  to  be  more  abundant  in  the 
western  and  southern  portions  of  the  United  States. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS  279 

Unlike  many  of  the  household  pests,  the  ham  beetle 
is  not  present  and  injurious  the  greater  part  of  every  season, 
but  it  appears  occasionally  in  a  ham  or  two  and  when 
destroyed  may  not  be  seen  again  for  years.  Its  most 
serious  injuries  are  caused  to  stored  meats  in  warehouses. 
It  occasionally  becomes  established  unawares  in  large 
storehouses  and  the  infested  hams  are  shipped  to  retail 
dealers,  who  in  turn  deliver  them  to  private  households. 
Since  these  hams  are  tightly  wrapped,  the  dealers  may  be 
wholly  unconscious  of  the  infestation. 

C.  V.  Riley  gives  some  interesting  accounts  of  the 
work  of  this  insect  on  hams  in  storehouses.  He  cites 
the  case  of  S.  S.  Pierce  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  who  ordered 
twenty  tierces  of  hams  from  S.  Davis,  Jr.,  &  Co.,  of  Cin- 
cinnati during  April  and  May,  1873.  The  hams  were 
received  and  hung  without  examination  in  a  dry,  airy 
loft,  where  they  remained  until  the  following  August. 
They  were  then  examined  and  found  full  of  worms.  It 
seems  probable,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  hams  had  been 
kept  closely  wrapped,  that  they  were  infested  with  the 
eggs  of  the  beetle  before  leaving  the  packing  house  in 
Cincinnati.  However,  as  this  could  not  be  definitely 
proven,  Pierce  &  Co.  were  not  able  to  collect  damages 
from  the  packers. 

He  also  cites  the  case  of  Francis  Whittaker  &  Sons,  St. 
Louis,  who  suffered  severe  loss  through  the  injuries  com- 
mitted by  this  insect.  The  principal  injury  to  the  hams 
was  done  in  this  case  around  the  end  of  the  prominent 
shank  bone.  Here  the  canvas  had  become  weak  and 
worn  through,  giving  the  beetles  access  to  the  meat. 
Moreover,  it  seems  that  the  Company  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  wrapping  their  hams  a  little  too  late  in  the  spring. 


280  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Methods  of  control.  —  In  the  household  this  insect 
is  not  a  serious  pest.  Moreover,  the  injury  is  not  so  great 
as  it,  at  first  sight,  may  seem.  If  a  ham  should  become 
infested,  the  outer  meat  containing  the  worms  could  be 
cut  off  and  thrown  away.  The  inner  meat  usually  remains 
sweet  and  unaffected  and  is  perfectly  good  to  use. 

When  a  ham  comes  from  the  dealer  infested,  it  can,  of 
course,  be  returned  at  once. 

In  the  case  of  packers  and  wholesale  dealers  the  hams 
should  be  wrapped  early  in  the  season,  before  the  first 
of  May,  with  a  strong  canvas  that  will  not  break  through 
or  wear  away.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  close  up 
all  cracks  in  the  wrapping  so  that  no  places  will  be  left 
through  which  the  beetles  may  gain  access  to  the  meat. 

REFERENCES   TO   ECONOMIC   LITERATURE  ON  THE  HAM  BEETLE 

1874.    RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Red-legged  ham-beetle.    Sixth  Ann.  Rept. 

of  the  State  Ent.  of  Mo.,  p.  96. 
1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

United  States.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  105. 
1905.    KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  American  insects,  p.  270. 

THE   CHEESE   AND   HAM  MITES 

Tyroglyphus  hngior,  T.  farince,  T.  americanus,  et  al. 

Cheese,  hams,  and  various  other  food  products  are  often 
infested  with  enormous  numbers  of  minute,  pale-colored, 
eight-legged  creatures,  known  as  mites.  These  creatures 
are  not  true  insects,  for  they  have  eight  long  legs  (Fig. 
91)  and  differ  in  other  ways  from  their  six-legged  cousins. 
Near  relatives  of  these  mites  are  the  common  ticks  that 
occur  on  dogs  and  cattle.  These  mites  have  a  long  list  of 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS 


281 


food  substances  which  they  attack  as  opportunity  affords. 
They  often  occur  in  sugar,  especially  raw  sugar,  in  great 
numbers  and  are  therefore  sometimes  called  sugar  mites. 
It  is  these  tiny  mites  (Fig.  94),  abundant  at  times  in 
grocery  stores,  that  cause  the  disease  known  as  "grocer's 
itch."  The  malady  is  induced  by  the  presence  of  the 
mites  on  the  hands  of  those 
working  among  mite-infested 
food  products.  The  materials 
attacked  by  these  pests  in- 
clude flour,  hams,  dried 
meats,  sugar,  cheese,  hair  in 
furniture  and  mattresses, 
grains,  cereal  foods,  drugs, 
dried  fruits,  seeds,  bulbs, 
roots,  and  feathers.  One 
species,  at  least,  is  a  serious 
pest  of  mushrooms.  We 
have  seen  mites  exceedingly 
abundant  in  the  manure 
about  to  be  placed  in  spawn 
beds.  Whether  these  mush- 
room mites  originate  in  the  „ 

...  FIG.  91.  — A  common  cheese  mite 

manure  used  in  the  beds  or  (T.  longior).    (x  60.) 

not   we   dare    not    say.     At 

any  rate,  manure  is  often  infested  with  them  and  some 
mushroom  growers  have  attempted  to  fumigate  the 
manure  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  before  using  it. 

The  life  history  and  transformations  of  these  mites 
are  most  remarkable  and  interesting.  All  of  them  lay 
eggs,  which  they  scatter  irregularly  over  the  material  upon 
which  they  are  feeding.  The  young  mites  that  hatch 


282 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


from  the  eggs  have  only  six  legs,  but  after  molting  they 
obtain  two  more.  The  young  mites  may  gradually  grow, 
by  shedding  their  skins,  into  the  adult  forms,  or  they  may 
pass  through  a  curious  stage,  known  as  the  hypopus 
(Fig.  92).  The  hypopus  is  very  different  in  every  way 
from  the  young  mite  from  which  it  developed.  The  body 
of  the  hypopus  is  hard  and  chitinous  and  its  legs  are  very 

short  and  inefficient  for 
walking.  The  body  on  the 
ventral  side  near  the  tip 
is,  however,  provided  with 
several  sucking  disks  that 
serve  a  very  useful  pur- 
pose when  the  opportunity 
is  presented.  There  is  no 
mouth  opening  and  there 
are  no  distinct  mouth- 
parts.  Evidently  the  crea- 
ture does  not  take  food  in 
this  stage.  In  fact,  the 
hypopus  is  a  remarkable 

FIG.  92.  —  Hypopus  of  cheese  mite,     ,"*  J  j  j      t    11 

much  enlarged.  body    and    wonderfully 

adapted     to     a     peculiar 

situation.  The  hard  covering  of  the  hypopus  protects 
it  from  injury  and  from  the  influence  of  fluctuating 
temperatures,  humidity  and  other  influences.  In  this 
stage  the  mites  can  exist  for  long  periods  without  food. 
When  favorable  conditions  return,  the  hypopus  will  molt, 
when,  behold  !  it  has  changed  to  a  young  mite  again  which 
feeds  normally  and  develops  to  an  adult  in  the  regular 
way.  Just  what  influences  induce  a  young  mite  to  trans- 
form into  a  hypopus  is  not  known.  It  is  evidently  not 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS  283 

a  scarcity  of  food,  for  it  has  been  shown  that  hypopi  are 
developed  when  food  is  present. 

It  was  formerly  a  source  of  wonder  as  to  what  became 
of  the  hordes  of  mites  when  they  had  completely  devoured 
all  of  a  given  cheese,  for  example ;  or  how  an  apparently 
clean  storeroom  became  infested  with  these  tiny  creatures. 
We  now  know  that  some  of  the  partly  grown  mites,  either 
before  or  at  the  time  the  food  disappears,  transform  to 
hypopi  and  remain  in  a  half  comatose  condition  awaiting 
events.  As  Howard  says,  "these  fortunate  survivors, 
possessing  their  souls  with  patience,  retire  into  their 
shells  and  fast  and  wait,  and  as  everything  comes  to  him 
who  waits,  some  lucky  day  a  mouse  or  house-fly  or  some 
other  insect  comes  that  way,  and  the  little  mite  clings 
to  it  and  is  carried  away  to  some  spot  —  where  another 
cheese  or  food  in  some  other  form  is  at  hand."  It  is 
under  these  circumstances  that  the  sucking  disks  to  which 
we  have  already  referred  perform  their  useful  function, 
namely,  that  of  fastening  the  hypopus  to  its  agent  of 
transportation,  the  mouse  or  the  insect.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly the  manner  in  which  new  food  supplies  and 
clean  storerooms  often  become  infested. 

These  mites  are  certainly  widely  distributed  over  this 
country  and  indeed  over  the  world.  Considerable  con- 
fusion seems  to  exist,  however,  as  to  the  identity  of  our 
species  with  the  European  forms.  It  seems  certain  that 
the  common  cheese  mite  (Tyroglyphus  longior)  and  the 
flour  mite  (Tyroglyphus  (Aleurobius)  farinci)  (Fig.  93) 
both  of  which  are  European  forms,  occur  here. 

These  mites  increase  with  great  rapidity  and  in  a  short 
time  occur  in  enormous  numbers.  Flour,  for  example, 
may  become  literally  alive  with  these  tiny  creatures.  A 


284 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


correspondent  writes  to  Lintner:  "A  few  days  since  a 
neighbor  sent  us  a  pan  of  wheat  flour  with  the  request  that 
we  examine  it.  Setting  the  pan  in  a  quiet  place  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  surface  presented  a  strange  appearance  — 
only  comparable  to  that  of  an  ant  hill  —  as  though  each 
grain  was  being  separately 
moved.  Slightly  disturbing 
this  surface  and  examining 
through  a  common  sun-glass 
of  low  power  it  was  found  to 
be  full  of  very  minute  life." 
Sugars,  especially  raw  sugars, 
are  often  found  infested  to 
the  same  extent.  Smoked 
meats,  especially  hams  and 
shoulders,  sometimes  swarm 
with  mites  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  resist  all  efforts  at  con- 
trol and  to  render  them  totally 
unfit  for  sale.  Packing  houses 
and  feed  mills  are  occasionally 
very  much  troubled  with 
them. 

It  is  interesting  to  know 
that  these  mites  are  some- 
times checked  and  practically 
destroyed  by  some  enemies  of  their  own  kind,  one  or 
more  species  of  predaceous  mites.  The  predaceous 
species  seem  to  feed  entirely  upon  their  more  trouble- 
some brethren  and  eventually  reduce  the  latter  very 
greatly  in  numbers.  Howard  relates  an  interesting 
example  of  the  work  of  these  predaceous  mites  that 


FIG.  93.  —  A  cheese  mite  (T. 
farinas),     (x  80.) 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO  MEATS  285 

came  under  his  observation.  A  gentleman  of  Milwaukee 
sent  him  some  thousands  of  the  flour  mites  which  were 
found  in  a  bin  of  wheat  in  an  old  elevator.  They  were 
so  numerous  that  a  quart  or  more  could  be  gathered 
every  morning  below  the  spout  from  which  they  had  fallen. 
An  examination  showed  that  at  least  three  species  of 
predaceous  mites  were  present  among  the  flour  mites, 
and  were  rapidly  devouring  the  latter.  In  fact,  one  species 
was  so  abundant  that  there  was  no  hesitation  in  writing 
the  gentleman  that  the  flour  mites  would  soon  be  destroyed 
by  the  predaceous  forms.  A  week  or  so  later  the  corre- 
spondent wrote,  "As  you  say,  the  parasitic  mites  have 
largely  destroyed  the  smaller  ones,  and  I  suppose  when 
their  food  is  all  gone  they  will  die  of  starvation." 

Methods  of  control.  —  When  once  these  mites  become 
established  in  a  pantry  or  storeroom,  heroic  measures 
must  be  taken  to  exterminate  them.  The  removal  of 
all  food-stuffs  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  may  not 
avail  much  when  it  is  recalled  that  in  the  hypopus  stage 
the  mites  can  withstand  a  fast  of  months  and  that  even 
the  soft,  pale,  active  mites  may  live  for  weeks  without 
food.  Neither  is  it  any  wonder  that  pantries  and  store- 
rooms become  infested,  considering  the  ease  with  which 
the  hypopi  are  carried  about  by  mice  and  insects. 

Infested  parts  of  cheese  and  hams  may  be  cut  out  and 
thrown  away.  It  is  often  difficult,  however,  to  get  all 
of  the  mites,  for  they  are  so  small  and  so  easily  escape 
the  sight.  Of  course,  where  a  few  are  left  they  soon 
reinfest  the  material.  In  the  case  of  infested  hams,  all 
of  the  loose  powdery  material  that  accumulates  on  the 
surface  of  the  meat  should  be  brushed  and  scraped  off  as 
thoroughly  as  possible.  To  kill  the  eggs  and  any  remain- 


286 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


ing  mites  that  may  have  escaped  the  brushing  the  meat 
may  be  dipped  for  half  a  minute  in  a  solution  of  one  part 
of  carbolic  acid,  ten  parts  of  alcohol,  and  ninety  parts  of 
water.  This  solution  should  kill  the  eggs  and  mites  and 
not  injure  the  meat. 

A  storeroom  or  pantry  once  infested  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  then  may  be  fumigated  with  sulfur  at  the 
rate  of  2  pounds  to  1000  cubic  feet  or  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  at  the  rate 
of  1  ounce  to  100  cubic 
feet.  If  the  room  is  not 
fumigated,  it  may  be 
thoroughly  sprayed  or 
washed  with  kerosene  oil. 
The  oil  should  be  forced 
into  all  of  the  cracks  and 
crevices  where  the  mites 
may  be  in  hiding.  Prob- 
ably gasoline  would  be  as 
effective  in  killing  the 
mites  and  would  be  more 

FIG.  94. -sugar  mite  (G.  robustus).    Peasant  to  use  than  kero- 
(x  50.)  sene  but  more  dangerous 

because  of  fire. 

Remarks  on  the  species.  —  Banks,  from  the  material 
that  he  had  at  hand  from  the  United  States,  found  two 
species  of  the  genus  Glyciphagus.  In  this  genus,  the 
cuticle  is  more  or  less  granular  and  the  hairs  of  body 
plumose  or  scale-like.  The  name  of  the  genus  indicates 
that  these  mites  are  the  true  sugar  mites  and  cause  the 
disease  of  which  we  have  spoken  as  "grocer's  itch."  We 
figure  one  species  G.  robustus  after  Banks  (Fig.  94). 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS 


287 


The  species  Tyroglyphus  farina  is  the  old  Aleurobius 
farince.  According  to  Banks  it  is  not  certain  that  T. 
siro  occurs  in  this  country.  He  believes  that  many  of 
the  references  in  literature  to  T.  siro  and  T.  longior 
refer  to  a  new  species  T. 
americanus  Banks,  which 
he  finds  abundant  in  the 
collections  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at 
Washington,  D.C.,  and 
recorded  as  occurring  on 
rotten  plums,  in  flaxseed, 

Wheat,    rice,    COtton     seed,    F^.  95.  -Tarsi  //F,  and  hairs,  A, 
.  '  from  T.  longior,  enlarged. 

and  decaying  oranges. 

The  tarsi  of  T.  longior  are  very  long  and  the  hairs  of  the 
body  are  plumose  as  shown  in  Fig.  95  after  Banks. 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  CHEESE  MITES 

1887.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  A  mite  infesting  smoked  meats.    Third 
Kept.  Ins.  N.Y.,  p.  130. 

1888.  CANESTRINI,  GIOVANNI.  —  Prospetto  dell'  acarofauna  Itali- 
ana,  III,  pp.  351-418. 

1888.  RILEY  and  HOWARD.  —  Mites  infesting  an  old  grain  elevator. 
Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  51. 

1889.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  The  cheese  mite  infesting  smoked  meats. 
Fifth  Rept.  Ins.  N.Y.,  p.  291. 

1889.  --  The  cheese  mite  infesting  flour.     Fifth  Rept.  Ins.  N.Y., 
p.  294. 

1890.  RILEY   and   HOWARD.  —  Mites   in   a   warm-house.     Insect 
Life,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  162. 

1896.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  cheese,  ham,  and  flour  mites.     Bull.  4, 

n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  100. 
1906.     BANKS,  NATHAN.  —  A  revision  of  the  Tyroglyphidse  of  the 

United  States.     Tech.  Bull.  13,   Bu.   Ent.,  U.  S.   Dept.   Agri. 


288  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

THE  CHEESE    AND  MEAT  SKIPPER 

Piophila  casei 

It  is  rather  disconcerting,  not  to  say  humiliating,  for 
the  lady  of  the  house,  at  the  last  moment,  to  find  the  cheese 
ordered  for  a  chafing-dish  party,  full  of  small,  white, 
lively,  and  rather  disgusting  maggots.  This  is  not  an 
uncommon  experience  by  any  means.  Grocers  always 


Fio.  96.  —  The  parent  fly  of  a  cheese  skipper.     (X  9.) 

keep  their  cheese  beneath  fine-meshed  wire  netting; 
but  there  are  many  opportunities  for  the  small  fly,  parent 
of  these  skippers,  to  obtain  entrance  within  and  deposit 
her  eggs. 

The  insect  that  lays  these  eggs  is  a  small,  shining-black 
fly  scarcely  one-half  the  size  of  a  house-fly  (Fig.  96).  The 
eggs  hatch  into  small  white  slender  maggots  that  become 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length.  These  maggots 
possess  remarkable  powers  of  leaping  and  on  this  account 
are  called  "skippers."  They  have  no  legs,  yet  by  bring- 
ing the  two  ends  of  the  body  together  and  suddenly  re- 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS  289 

leasing  them  like  a  spring  they  are  thrown  considerable 
distances,  four  or  five  inches. 

The  cheese  skipper  was  probably  imported  from  Europe. 
It  is  now  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States. 
In  fact,  it  is  a  cosmopolitan  pest.  C.  V.  Riley  in  1880 
showed  that  the  same  fly  laid  its  eggs  on  cured  meats, 
where  they  hatched  and  the  "  skippers  "  infested  the  meats. 
Thus  it  has  also  become  known  as  the  "meat  skipper." 
In  fact,  it  probably  causes  much  more  loss  to  the  large 
meat  packing  establishments  than  it  does  to  cheese  making 
factories.  Miss  Murtfeldt  quotes  from  a  letter  from  a 
packing-house  company  regarding  this  insect  as  follows : 
"  We  wish  to  know  what  it  is  and  especially  at  what  period 
in  its  life  it  can  best  be  fought.  It  entails  an  enormous 
loss  upon  all  of  our  packing-house  companies."  The  fly 
infests  hams  and  shoulders,  and  other  smoked  parts  of 
the  carcass.  Apparently,  it  is  not  much  attracted  to 
fresh  meats  or  to  those  simply  salted.  Moreover,  it 
seems  attracted  to  pork  more  than  to  beef.  Even  when 
a  ham  of  beef  and  of  pork  hang  side  by  side,  it  prefers  the 
pork.  In  cheese  manufactories  there  is  evidently  less 
damage  than  formerly.  The  cheese  storerooms  are  often 
darkened  and  the  cheeses  turned  and  rubbed  every  morning 
with  grease.  The  skippers  are  notorious  for  their  habit 
of  infesting  the  better  and  richer  cheeses.  One  can  be 
sure  that  a  "skippery"  cheese  is  a  good  one  but  not 
good  because  of  the  presence  of  the  skippers.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  the  skippers  actually  improve  the 
cheese,  although  there  is  an  old  English  custom  of  placing 
cheese  under  the  drip  of  a  beer  keg  to  attract  the  insect 
and  encourage  its  development. 

Miss  M.  E.  Murtfeldt  made  a  series  of  observations 


290 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


on  the  life  history  of  the  cheese  skipper  in  the  summer  of 
1892.     She  found  that  the  egg  was  pearly  white,  slightly 
curved,  and   one-twenty-fifth  of   an 
inch   in   length.     The   eggs  may  be 
deposited  in  more  or   less  compact 
clusters  of  five  to  fifteen  or  they  may 
be  laid  singly  in  folds  of  the  wrapping 
FIG.  97.  — Cheese  skip-  cloth.     The  eggs  hatch  in  thirty-six 
per^maggotofP.casei.  nours  an(j  tiie  minute  slender  larvse 

go  at  once  in  search  of  food.  The 
larva,  or  "skipper,"  is  cylindrical,  tapers  gradually  toward 
the  anterior  end  but  is  truncate  at  the  posterior  end  (Fig. 
97).  Projecting  from  the  posterior  end  are  two  horny  stig- 
mata and  a  pair  of  fleshy  filaments. 
The  maggots  attain  their  full  growth  in 
seven  to  eight  days,  becoming  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  long.  While  feed- 
ing, if  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
food,  the  larvse  do  not  move  about 
much.  When  they  become  full-grown, 
however,  each  one  crawls  to  a  crack  or 
crevice  in  the  fold  of  the  wrapper  and 
there  contracts  and  changes  to  a  pupa 
(Fig.  98).  The  pupal  stage  occupies 
about  ten  days.  Thus  in  August  the 
life  cycle  would  be  passed  in  three  FlG 
weeks. 

Kellogg  also  studied  the  life  history 
of  this  insect  during  February  and  March  of  the  same 
year.  He  found  at  this  time  of  year  that  the  egg  stage 
occupied  about  four  days  and  that  the  larvse  were  about 
two  weeks  in  completing  their  growth.  The  pupal  stage 


—  Pupa  of 
cheese  skipper, 
enlarged. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS  291 

occupied  about  one  week.  In  this  case  then  the  life 
cycle  occupied  between  three  and  four  weeks.  Probably 
the  stages  were  prolonged  by  the  lower  temperature. 
The  flies  are  certainly  more  active  and  more  injurious 
during  the  hottest  part  of  summer. 

H.  F.  Kessler  has  also  made  careful  observations  on  the 
life  history  of  this  insect  in  Europe.  He  found  that  the 
average  time  for  the  production  of  a  generation  of  the  flies 
was  between  four  and  five  weeks  and  that  there  were  two 
or  three  generations  during  the  season.  He  found  that 
the  insect  passed  the  winter  as  puparia  and  that  the  flies 
emerged  the  following  spring  in  May.  Other  observers 
say  that  the  adult  flies  hide  in  secluded  nooks  and  live 
over  the  winter. 

Methods  of  control.  —  Cheeses,  when  made  at  home, 
should  be  carefully  examined  every  day,  especially  in  the 
months  of  August  and  September.  The  checks  and  cracks 
should  be  kept  filled  with  particles  of  cheese  that  have 
been  crushed  smooth  in  order  to  work  into  the  crevices  nicely. 
The  bandages  should  be  tight  about  the  edges  and  should 
fit  smoothly.  By  greasing  the  outsides  of  the  cheeses 
and  by  turning  them  and  examining  them  every  day 
they  can  be  kept  free  from  skippers. 

Infested  portions  of  cheeses  may  be  cut  out  and  thrown 
away.  When  pieces  of  infested  cheese  are  obtained  from 
the  grocer,  they  may  be  returned. 

Hams  are  usually  found  to  be  infested  only  in  certain 
portions  and  the  remaining  portions  usually  remain  sweet 
and  wholesome.  Fortunately,  the  presence  of  the  skippers 
does  not  induce  decay  and  putrescence.  The  infested 
parts  of  the  meat  may  then  be  cut  out  and  thrown  away 
while  the  remainder  may  be  safely  used  for  food. 


292  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

Pantries  or  storerooms  once  infested  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  fumigated  with  sulfur,  and  washed  with 
ordinary  kerosene  oil.  Special  pains  should  be  taken  to 
clean  out  all  the  cracks  and  wash  them  with  the  oil 
because  the  puparia  of  the  flies  may  often  lurk  in  such 
places. 

The  flies  may  be  kept  out  of  rooms  or  receptacles  by 
using  wire  screen  having  24  meshes  to  the  inch.  If  these 
pests  are  troublesome,  the  storeroom  should  be  thoroughly 
screened  so  that  the  flies  cannot  gain  entrance. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CHEESE  SKIPPER 

1870.    WILLARD,   A.  —  The   cheese-fly.    American   Entomologist, 

Vol.  2,  p.  78. 
1880.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Skippers  injuring  smoked  hams.     American 

Entomologist,  Vol.  3,  p.  23. 

1892.  KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  The  ham  fly.    Transac.  Kansas  Acad. 
of  Science,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  114. 

1893.  MURTFELDT,  Mary  E.  —  The  cheese  or  meat  skipper.     Insect 
Life,  Vol.  6,  p.  170. 

1896.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  cheese  skipper  or  ham  skipper.     Bull. 
4,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  102. 

1897.  LINTNER,   J.    A..—Piophila   casei.     Twelfth  Rept.    N.Y. 
Ins.,  p.  229. 

See  Lintner's  Twelfth  Report  for  further  references. 


THE   CIGARETTE   BEETLE 

Lasioderma  serricorne_  -A&<W4 

The  cigarette  beetle  is  primarily  a  pest  of  tobacco  in  all 
forms.  It  attacks  cigarettes  and  cigars  by  boring  holes 
in  them  thus  injuring  them  so  that  they  will  not  draw. 
The  insect  is  becoming  abundant  in  many  of  the  tobacco 
factories,  warehouses,  and  stores  in  various  parts  of  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  MEATS  293 

United  States  and  is  evidently  on  the  increase.  Prob- 
ably many  people  would  be  inclined  to  look  upon  the 
cigarette  beetle  as  a  beneficial  insect,  provided  it  con- 
fined its  injuries  wholly  to  tobacco.  Unfortunately,  it  is 
turning  its  attention  to  various  household  food-stuffs  and 
is  apparently  gaining  in  importance  as  a  household  pest. 

The  adult  beetle  (Fig.  99)  resembles  the  drug-store 
beetle  in  size  and  appearance  and  has  very  similar  habits 
as  a  household  pest.  It  infests  a 
wide  range  of  foods  and  condi- 
ments. It  has  been  reported  as 
infesting  rice,  figs,  yeast  cakes, 
cayenne  pepper,  ginger,  rhubarb, 
and  other  similar  materials.  Two 
bottles  of  red  pepper  infested  with 
either  this  insect  or  the  drug- 
store beetle  repose  on  the  desk 
of  the  writer  at  this  time,  await- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  adult.  FlG"  "'  7xCj?0aJette  beetle" 

A  more  serious  case  of  injury 

is  reported  in  Inject  Life  in  which  the  beetles  and  larvae 
were  found  feeding  upon  silk  with  which  certain  furniture 
was  upholstered. 

The  beetle  is  a  little  more  than  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  head  is  bent  under  somewhat  in 
front,  yet  it  is  more  prominent  than  it  is  in  the  drug-store 
beetle.  The  wing  covers  are  not  striated  and  the  segments 
of  the  antennae  are  nearly  of  a  uniform  size.-  At  least 
the  last  three  are  not  enlarged  like  those  of  the  drug- 
store beetle.  The  larva  is  rather  thickly  covered  with 
long  hairs  (Fig.  100). 

The   insect   multiplies    rapidly   and    in   the    warmer 


294  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

climate  of  the  South  breeds  most  of  the  year,  while  in 
heated  factories  and  rooms  of  the  North  it  probably 
breeds  continuously.  There  are  evidently  two  generations 
a  year,  at  least  in  the  latitude  of  Washington.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  about  eleven  days 
and  the  larva?  may  live  two 
months  or  more  before  com- 
pleting their  growth.  When 
full-grown  the  larva  spins  a 
silken  cocoon  covered  with 
bits  of  the  material  on 
which  it  is  feeding.  The 
whole  life  cycle  may  be 
Passed  in  forty-seven  days 
under  favorable  conditions. 
It  is  interesting  and  of  some  satisfaction  to  know  that 
the  larvae  of  the  cigarette  beetle  are  attacked  by  a  tiny 
wasp-like  parasite  (Catolaccus  anthonomi  Ash).  The 
parasite  lays  its  eggs  in  the  larvae  of  the  beetle,  where  they 
hatch,  and  the  tiny  grubs  destroy  their  hosts.  It  is  probable 
that  this  parasite  would  not  exterminate  the  beetles,  but 
it  would  undoubtedly  hold  them  in  check. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  CIGARETTE  BEETLE 

1886.    ATKINSON,  G.  F.  —  The  cigarette  beetle,  Lasioderma  serri- 

corne,  Fab.     Jour.  Elisha  Mitchell  Sci.  Soc.,  pp.  68-73. 
1893.     RILEY  and  HOWARD.  —  Cigarette  beetle  eating  silk.     Insect 

Life,  Vol.  6,  p.  40. 
1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  principal  household  insects  of  the 

U.  S.     Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  126-127. 
1898.     QUAINTANCE,  A.  L.  —  Insect  enemies  of  tobacco  in  Florida. 

Bull.  48,  Fla.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  175-177. 
1900.     HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  principal  insects  affecting  the  tobacco 

plant.    Farmers'  Bull.  120,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  26-30. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO   MEATS 


295 


THE  DRUG-STORE   BEETLE 

Sitodrepa  panicea 

A  box  of  yeast-foam  cakes  brought  home  from  the  gro- 
cer's was  found  to  be  swarming  with  small  white  larvae 
or  grubs.  The  larvae  had  tunneled  and  mined  through 
the  cakes  in  various 
directions  (Plate  III). 
Wherever  two  of  the 
cakes  came  in  contact, 
the  tunnels  showed  up 
nicely  along  their  sur- 
faces when  they  were 
pulled  apart.  The  bur- 
rows of  the  larvae  were 
more  or  less  filled  with 
small  white  pellets  of 
the  undigested  material 
that  the  grubs  had  de- 
posited in  them.  The 
cakes  were  found  infested 
on  January  2d,  and  on 
March  3d  an  abundance 
of  small  reddish-brown 
beetles  appeared.  These 
proved  to  be  the  common  drug-store  beetle.  Our  experi- 
ence was  not  at  all  an  uncommon  one.  All  sorts  of 
substances  bought  at  groceries  and  drug  stores  are  apt 
to  be  infested  with  this  insect. 

The  adult  beetle  is  very  small,  only  a  trifle  over  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  reddish-brown  in  color  and 
covered  with  a  fine  silky  pubescence  (Fig.  101).  The 


FIG.  101.  — Drug-store  beetle. 
(X  24.) 


296  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

wing  covers  are  plainly  striated  and  the  antennae  end  in 
three  large,  long  segments  which  form  the  so-called  "club" 
of  the  antenna.  When  the  beetle  is  at  rest,  the  head  is 
withdrawn  into  the  peculiar  hood-shaped  thorax.  The 
larvae  are  white,  cylindrical,  and  when  working  in  their 
burrows  assume  a  curved  attitude  like  a  miniature  white 
grub  of  a  May  beetle.  The  mouth  parts  are  dark  col- 
ored and  contrast  plainly  with  the  head.  The  pupae 
which  transform  in  the  burrows  made  by  the  larvae  are 
white. 

The  yeast  cakes  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  were  kept 
in  a  steam-heated  room.  This  was  in  March  and  the 
room  often  became  quite  cool  at  night  so  that  the  tem- 
perature was  rather  uneven.  Under  these  conditions, 
the  pupal  stage  lasted  about  two  weeks  (16  days).  Very 
little,  if  any,  attempt  is  made  to  form  a  cocoon.  The 
larvae  seem  to  form  more  or  less  of  a  cell  in  their  burrows 
and  then  transform  without  making  a  cocoon.  The  life 
history  from  egg  to  adult  occupies  about  two  months, 
and  there  may  be  four  or  five  generations  in  a  year  in  a 
heated  building. 

The  larvae  (Fig.  102)  of  this  beetle  are  almost  omniv- 
orous and  they  have  been  known  to  scientists  as  old  of- 
fenders of  many  years'  standing.  The  insect  is  widely 
distributed  over  the  civilized  world  wherever  commerce 
between  countries  has  been  carried  on.  It  has  been  said 
of  the  larva  that  "it  will  eat  anything  except  cast  iron." 
It  has  been  reported  as  boring  through  sheet  lead  and 
tin  foil.  It  is  particularly  in  evidence  in  drug  stores,  and 
apparently  thrives  upon  all  sorts  of  drugs,  making  no 
discrimination  between  those  that  are  poisonous  to  human 
beings,  at  least,  and  those  perfectly  harmless.  Indeed, 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS 


297 


in  its  drug  menu,  are  such  bitter  and  poisonous  substances 
as  aconite  and  belladonna.  It  also  shows  its  liking  for 
boneset,  rhubarb,  squill,  orris  root,  dandelion,  and  ergot. 
In  fact,  Kellogg  found  this  insect  feeding  on  forty-five 
different  drugs. 

In  addition  to  its  depredations  in  drug  stores  it  has 
occasionally  caused  serious  injuries  in  wholesale  boot  and 
shoe  houses  by  burrowing  through  the  leather  in  all  direc- 


FIG.  102.  — Larva  of  drug-store  beetle.     (X  20.) 

tions,  especially  through  the  soles.  The  shoes  attacked 
are  left  full  of  small  round  holes  through  which  the  adult 
beetles  have  emerged. 

The  beetles  have  occasionally  shown  their  liking  for 
books  and  the  larvae  have,  in  some  instances,  caused  con- 
siderable injury  to  books  by  boring  through  them.  Corn- 
stock  bred  it  in  large  numbers  from  the  covers  of  an  old 
copy  of  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy."  Theysometimes  attack 
cork,  especially  sheet  cork.  As  this  kind  of  cork  is  often 
used  to  line  insect  boxes,  the  beetles  are  sometimes  found 
among  insect  collections,  and  when  the  larvae  tire  of  the 


298  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

cork  or  desire  a  change  of  food,  they  have  been  known  to 
attack  the  insect  specimens  in  the  box. 

Among  household  materials,  the  larvae  are  known  to 
attack  dried  beans  and  peas  and  seeds  of  all  kinds,  together 
with  flour,  meal,  breakfast  foods,  chocolate,  black  and  red 
pepper,  ginger,  and  other  condiments.  As  we  pointed  out 
in  case  of  the  yeast  cakes, the  insects  maybe  in  the  materials 
when  they  are  purchased  at  the  store.  Very  often  one 
may  find  the  contents  of  the  packages  of  such  foods  totally 
worthless  on  account  of  the  presence  of  so  many  larvae 
throughout  the  whole  mass. 

Chittenden  says  that  this  small  beetle  has  a  most  per- 
sistent enemy,  a  tiny  chalcis  fly  (Meraporus  calandra 
How.).  This  parasite  pursues  the  beetle  relentlessly,  even 
entering  insect  boxes  in  pursuit  of  its  host.  A  small  mite 
also  preys  upon  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the  drug-store 
beetle. 

Methods  of  control.  —  When  a  small  amount  of  material 
is  brought  from  the  store  and  is  found  to  be  badly  infested, 
the  simplest  way  of  treating  it  is  to  return  the  package  or 
destroy  it,  and  buy  new.  Care  should  be  exercised  either 
to  confine  the  beetles  and  return  all  of  them  with  the 
package  or  be  sure  to  destroy  them  all  so  that  they  do  not 
escape  into  the  house. 

Where  they  occur  in  a  sack  or  barrel  of  meal  or  flour, 
they  will  usually  be  found  near  the  top.  In  this  case,  the 
top  of  the  meal  or  flour  may  often  be  carefully,  removed 
and  fed  out  to  animals  and  all  of  the  beetles  and  larvae 
gotten  rid  of  in  this  way.  If  the  larvae  have  found 
their  way  up  and  down  the  sides  of  the  sack  or  barrel 
and  have  penetrated  a  pretty  good  portion  of  the  ma- 
terial in  this  way,  there  is  not  much  that  can  be  done 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   MEATS  299 

except  to  use  it  in  feeding  to  animals.  It  would  be  best, 
however,  to  kill  the  larvae  and  beetles  by  fumigating  the 
cereal  with  carbon  bisulfide,  to  make  sure  that  none  of 
them  escape  to  infest  other  household  materials.  This 
may  be  done  by  setting  a  teacupful  of  the  liquid  on  top  of 
the  flour  in  a  tin  dish  and  covering  the  barrel  tightly. 
Allow  it  to  stand  two  or  three  days  in  order  that  the  gas  may 
have  time  to  penetrate  into  the  flour  as  far  as  possible. 
In  the  meantime,  do  not  go  near  the  barrel  with  a  light  of 
any  kind,  for  the  gas  of  carbon  bisulfide  is  inflammable 
and  explosive. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  DRUG-STORE  BEETLE 

1888.     LINTNER,   J.    A.  —  Sitodrepa  panicea   as   a   leather-beetle. 

Fourth  Kept.,  pp.  88-93. 
1892.     RILEY  and   HOWARD.  —  Damage   to  boots   and   shoes  by 

Sitodrepa  panicea.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  4,  p.  403. 

1892.  BLAISDELL,  F.  E.  —  List  of  drugs  found  infested  by  Sitodrepa 
panicea.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  5,  p.  33. 

1893.  RILEY  and  HOWARD.  —  Damaging  chocolate  and  gun  wads. 
Insect  Life,  Vol.  5,  pp.  268-269 

1894.  KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  Insects  injuring  drugs  at  the  University  of 
Kansas.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  7,  p.  31. 

1896.     CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  drug-store  beetle  and  its  allies. 

Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.J  p.  124. 

1903.     HOULBERT,  G.  —  Les  insectes  ennemis  des  livres,  pp.  28-59. 
For  further  bibliography  see  the  article  of  Lintner  in  his  Fourth 
Report. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES 

THERE  is  probably  neither  bird  nor  beast  that  does  not 
have  as  its  foes  certain  minute  forms  of  animal  parasites. 
Sometimes  these  parasites  are  permanent  and  sometimes 
they  are  temporary.  Some  of  them  are  external  and  some 
of  them  are  internal.  Man  himself  is  no  exception,  for 
he  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  many  internal  parasites 
and  is  often  greatly  annoyed  and  seriously  injured  by  the 
work  of  several  external  parasites. 

We  have  already  discussed,  at  some  length,  the  tem- 
porary parasites,  mosquitoes,  fleas,  bedbugs,  and  certain 
flies.  There  are,  however,  certain  permanent  parasites 
which  attack  man  unless  he  is  very  careful  in  his  personal 
habits  and  watchful  of  his  contact  with  other  less  careful 
individuals.  We  refer  to  the  itch  mite,  the  head  louse, 
body  louse,  and  others.  ,  It  is  said  that  man  is  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  more  than  a  score  of  external  parasites. 

THE  ITCH  MITE   OF  MAN 

Sarcoptes  scabiei,  var.  hominis 

The  itch  mites  are  not  true  insects  but  are  closely  related 

to  the  ticks  and  belong  to  that  large  group  of  animals 

known  as  the  Arachnida,  the  more  familiar  examples  of 

which  are  the  spiders.     Like  the  spiders,  the  itch  mites 

300 


SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES  301 

have  four  pairs  of  legs,  but  with  this  exception  they  re- 
semble spiders  very  little.  They  are  widely  distributed 
over  the  earth  wherever  man  has  taken  up  his  abode. 
They  are  very  minute,  increase  exceedingly  fast,  and 
are  most  tenacious  of  life  when  once  they  have  become 
established  on  the  human  skin.  Unfortunately,  not  as 
much  is  known  of  the  life  history  of  these  mites  as  is 
desirable  —  probably  because  no  one  cares  to  act  as 
host  for  them  as  it  would  be  necessary  to  do  if  one 
wished  to  study  them  thoroughly. 

History  of  the  itch  disease.  —  This  disease  is  very  old, 
in  fact,  is  probably  as  old  as  man  himself.  It  seems 
quite  probable  that  man  contracted  the  disease,  origi- 
nally, from  the  lower  animals  with  which  he  associated  or 
came  in  intimate  contact.  The  itch  mite  of  the  horse 
may  be  transmitted  to  man,  but  the  infection  is  only  tem- 
porary —  three  to  eight  weeks.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
itch  mite  of  the  camel  and  goat,  when  transmitted  to  man, 
may  cause  severe  and  persistent  cases  of  itch.  The  mite 
causing  scabies  on  the  hog  and  the  dog  may  also  thrive 
for  a  time  on  man.  In  view  of  the  ease  with  which  these 
itch  mites  from  the  lower  animals  thrive  upon  man,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  believe  that  primitive  man  originally 
contracted  the  disease  from  some  animal  with  which  he 
came  in  close  contact.  Indeed,  it  is  held  that  the  itch 
mites  upon  man  and  the  lower  animals  are  simply  varieties 
of  the  same  mites  and  not  distinct  species. 

An  Arabian  physician,  Avenzoar,  in  the  twelfth  century 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  man  to  point  out  the  true 
cause  of  this  malady.  Other  physicians  in  the  fourteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  pointed  out  the  real  cause  of 
itch  and  in  1761  Linne  very  appropriately  named  the  tiny 


302 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


animal  responsible  for  the  trouble  Acarus  humanus  sub- 
cutaneus.  Later,  however,  all  of  this  knowledge  concern- 
ing the  cause  of  itch  seems  to  have  been  overlooked  and 
by  many  actually  disputed  and  denied.  During  this 
period  the  disease  was  variously  attributed  to  "  thickened 
bile,"  "drying  of  the  blood,"  " irritating  salts,"  whatever 
that  meant,  and  other  fantastic  causes.  Now,  however, 
we  know  the  life  history, 
appearance,  and  habits  of 
the  tiny  mite  responsible  for 
the  disease.  In  Figs.  103, 104 
we  show  the  male  and  female 
mites  as  they  look  under  a 
microscope  after  they  have 
been  removed  from  the  skin. 
Appearance  of  the  mites. 
—  The  itch  mites  are  very 
small  —  only  just  visible  to 
the  eye  as  minute  white 
specks.  It  would  take  sixty 
or  seventy  of  the  females  and 
eighty  to  one  hundred  of  the 
males  placed  end  to  end  to 

reach  an  inch.  The  body  of  each  mite  is  oval  and  nearly 
circular  when  viewed  from  above.  The  body  is  whitish 
in  color  and  wThen  magnified  is  seen  to  be  marked  with 
many  fine  transverse  folds  of  the  skin.  There  are  four 
pairs  of  legs  situated  in  groups  of  two  pairs,  an  anterior 
and  a  posterior  group.  The  anterior  legs  are  usually  the 
larger  and  in  both  sexes  each  one  terminates  with  a 
sucker  borne  on  a  long  pedicel.  Each  leg  of  the  posterior 
pairs  in  the  female  (Fig.  103)  terminates  in  a  long  bristle, 


FIG.  103.  — Itch  mite,  female. 
(X85.) 


SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES 


303 


while  in  the  male  (Fig.  104)  those  of  the  third  pair  only 
terminate  in  bristles,  and  each  one  of  the  fourth  pair  ends 
in  a  sucker.  On  the  anterior  end  of  the  body  is  a  strong 
beak  constituting  the  mouth  parts  which  are  formed  for 
piercing  and  biting.  The  bodies  of  the  itch  mites  bear 
slender  bristles  of  various  kinds  and  lengths. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  there  were  as  many  kinds 
of  itch  mites  as  there  were  animals  having  the  disease. 
Now,  however,  it  is  thought  that 
there  is  only  one  species  and  that 
the  itch  mites  on  man,  sheep, 
cattle,  goats,  and  other  animals 
are  simply  varieties  of  one  and 
the  same  species. 

Life  history  and  habits  of  the 
mite.  —  The  itch  mite  inhabits 
those  parts  of  the  body  covered 
with  thin  skin,  especially  between 
the  fingers,  and  in  the  bends  of 
the  elbows  and  knees,  wrists,  and 
a  few  other  places. 
excavates  tunnels  in  the  skin  and 
lives  within  these  burrows.  The  burrows  usually  extend 
through  the  outer  skin  down  into  the  deeper  layers  of 
the  true  skin  (Fig.  105).  They  are  more  or  less  tortuous 
and  vary  from  one-fifth  of  an  inch  to  over  half  an  inch 
in  length.  The  female  mite  may  be  found  at  the  end 
of  her  burrow.  Behind  her  in  the  tunnel  will  be  found 
the  tiny  oval  eggs  which  she  deposited  as  she  lengthened 
the  burrow.  She  finally  becomes  exhausted,  much 
shriveled,  and  eventually  dies.  Braun  says,  "The  six- 
legged  larvae  hatch  out  after  four  to  eight  days,  and 


TT«A    mitP    FlG-   104-  ~~  Itch  mite'  male- 
(X  125.) 


304 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


after  about  a  fortnight,  during  which  time  they  change 
their  skins  three  times  and  undergo  metamorphosis, 
they  begin  to  burrow  themselves."  There  may  be  genera- 
tion after  generation  of  the  mites  on  the  host,  and  they 
increase  so  fast  that  they  soon  number  among  the 
thousands.  The  irritation  continues  to  increase  with 
the  increase  in  numbers. 

Injury  and  contagiousness.  —  Wherever  the  mites  are 
present  they  cause  an  intense  irritation  and  the  affected 

person  scratches 
the  parts  inces- 
santly. The  ir- 
ritation is  much 
increased  under 
the  influence  of 
heat  and  exer- 
cise, and  always 
becomes  espe- 
cially intense 
when  the  patient 
goes  to  bed. 
The  affected  parts  become  covered  more  or  less  with 
grayish  scales  of  skin  and  later  papules  and  vesicles  ap- 
pear and  the  irritation  increases.  Often  the  galleries 
of  the  mites  may  be  seen  as  tiny  whitish  or  grayish 
streaks  in  the  skin.  The  action  of  the  parasite  is  both 
mechanical  and  chemical.  The  places  on  the  body  that 
are  attacked  by  the  parasite  are  so  definite  that  one 
should  have  no  difficulty  in  diagnosing  the  disease.  If 
there  is  any  doubt  the  mites  can  be  found  and  examined. 
Itch  is  highly  contagious  and  is  contracted  through 
personal  contact,  especially  through  contact  of  the  hands. 


FIG.  105.  —  Burrows  of  the  itch  mite  beneath 
the  skin,  diagrammatic. 


SOME  HUMAN   PARASITES  305 

No  one  is  exempt  and  it  is  especially  liable  to  be  contracted 
by  school  children,  inmates  of  poor  houses,  jails,  and  by 
soldiers  in  camp  life.  During  the  Civil  War  there  came 
into  existence  the  army  itch,  which  was  the  same  old  dis- 
ease that  had  gained  a  firm  foothold  among  the  soldiers 
because  they  did  not  have  facilities  for  bathing  and  for 
personal  cleanliness  and  because  they  were  in  such 
intimate  contact  with  one  another.  Before  physicians 
knew  so  well  how  to  treat  the  disease  people  were  told 
that  they  had  the  seven  years'  itch  and  went  on  scratching 
for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  itch  is  easily  eradicated  if 
one  is  thorough  and  persistent.  In  order  to  succeed,  the 
skin  of  the  patient  must  be  softened  and  the  scurfy  epider- 
mis removed  so  that  the  preparation  that  is  applied  will 
reach  the  mites.  A  rigorous  treatment  consists  in  rubbing 
the  patient  all  over  with  green  soap  and  water  and  then 
putting  the  individual  in  a  warm  bath  for  half  an  hour. 
This  process  softens  the  skin  and  removes  the  outer  crust 
of  skin,  thus  exposing  the  mites  to  the  action  of  any  prep- 
aration that  may  be  applied  to  the  body.  Ordinarily, 
common  sulfur  ointment  is  used  to  rub  over  the  body 
and  should  be  applied  in  liberal  quantities.  Sulfur 
ointment,  however,  will  not  kill  the  eggs  and  at  least  a 
second  application  should  be  made  after  an  interval  of 
two  or  three  days.  This  is  to  give  the  eggs  time  to  hatch. 
Some  authorities  also  recommend  that  the  underclothes, 
at  least,  should  be  immersed  for  some  time  in  hot  water. 

It  is  always  best,  however,  to  apply  to  a  physician  for 
advice  and  then  follow  his  directions.     There  is  a  large 
choice  of  remedies  nowadays  which   are  well  known  to 
physicians, 
x 


306  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  Norway  itch. — The  so-called  Norway  itch  is  a  curi- 
ous form  of  itch  disease  first  found  in  Norway  but  now  known 
to  occur  in  Austria,  France,  Denmark,  Russia,  Turkey, 
and  the  United  States.  It  affects  the  palms  of  the  hands, 
soles  of  the  feet,  knees  and  wrists  especially,  although 
in  aggravated  cases  it  may  spread  over  the  whole  body. 

At  least  one  case  has  been  found  in  this  country  and 
likely  others  will  occur.  Robert  Hessler  of  Indianapolis 
gave  a  description  of  this  case  which  occurred  at  the  City 
Hospital.  The  body  of  the  patient,  who  was  a  white 
man  partly  paralyzed,  was  covered  with  thick  yellowish- 
white,  leathery  scales,  the  largest  of  which  measured  over 
an  inch-in  diameter  and  over  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. In  and  beneath  these  large  scales  there  were  mul- 
titudes of  mites.  The  scales  on  the  palms,  soles,  and 
knees,  in  extreme  cases,  may  develop  from  a  fourth  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  in  thickness.  They  may  also  form  on  the 
head,  in  which  case  the  hair  falls.  Cases  of  this  itch  are 
of  long  standing,  especially  among  slovenly  people,  where 
it  has  been  known  to  run  three  to  sixteen  years. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  ITCH  MITES 

1862.  DELAFOND,  O.,  and  BOURGUIGNON.  — Traite'  pratique  de  la 
psore  de  1'homme  et  des  animaux  domestiques.  Memoires 
Academic  de  Sciences,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  277-922. 

1870.  RILEY,  C.  V.  —  The  itch  mite.  The  American  Entomolo- 
gist, Vol.  2,  p.  114. 

1895.  RAILLIET,  A.  —  Traite    de  zoologie    medicale  et   agricole, 
p.  647. 

1896.  OSBORN,   H.  —  Insects  affecting  domestic  animals.     Bull.  5, 
Bu.  Ent.,  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  269. 

1905.     BANKS,   NATHAN.  —  A    treatise   on   the   acarina  or  mites. 

Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  p.  1. 
1907.     OSLER,  WILLIAM.  —Modern  medicine,  etc.,  Vol.  1,  pp.  627-630. 


SOME   HUMAN  PARASITES  307 


LICE    PARASITIC    ON    MAN 

Pediculus  humanus  et  al. 

There  are  three  species  of  lice,  the  head  louse,  body 
louse,  and  crab  louse,  parasitic  on  the  body  of  man.  All  of 
these  species  have  been  associated  with  man  as  long  as  we 
have  any  history  of  the  human  family.  Some  of  the  forms, 
at  least,  are  referred  to  in  the  writings  of  Herodotus  and 
Aristotle.  Many  of  the  oldest  naturalists,  Swammerdam, 
Linnajus,  Redi,  and  others,  have  given  lengthy  disserta- 
tions on  the  head  louse.  The  presence  of  these  lice  on  the 
body  of  human  beings  did  not  seem  to  be  a  matter  of  so 
much  consequence  in  the  older  days,  for  instance,  in  the 
days  of  the  Stuarts,  as  it  is  nowadays.  Cleanly  people 
to-day  would  be  very  much  horrified  and  disgusted  to  find 
one  of  these  lice  on  their  persons.  In  the  olden  times, 
however,  these  creatures  were  joked  about  and  even 
tolerated  on  one's  person.  It  is  said  that  they  were 
boasted  of  by  some  people. 

In  an  old  book  entitled  "  Micrographia, "  published  by 
R.  Hooke  of  London  in  1665,  there  is  a  description  of  the 
head  louse  which  is  introduced  as  follows:  "This  is  a 
creature  so  officious  that  'twill  be  known  to  every  one  at 
one  time  or  other,  so  busie,  and  so  impudent,  that  it  will 
be  intruding  itself  in  every  one's  company,  and  so  proud 
and  aspiring  withall  that  it  fears  not  to  trample  on  the 
best,  and  affects  nothing  so  much  as  a  crown ;  feeds  and 
lives  very  high,  and  that  makes  it  so  saucy  as  to  pull  any 
one  by  the  ears  that  comes  its  way,  and  will  never  be  quiet 
till  it  has  drawn  blood." 

These  lice  may  pass  directly  from  one  person  to  another 


308  HOUSEHOLD   r\ SECTS 

or  they  may  be  carried  by  flies.  One  is  apt  to  become 
infested  by  sleeping  in  infested  beds  in  hotels,  sleeping- 
cars,  and  boarding  houses. 

These  lice  belong  to  the  family  of  insects  known  as  the 
Pediculidae,  placed  by  some  authors  in  the  order  Hemip- 
tera,  but  by  one  author  in  the  separate  order  Siphunculata. 
They  are  characterized,  chiefly,  by  being  entirely  wingless, 
with  not  even  a  vestige  of  wings,  by  leading  a  parasitic 
life  and  by  having  sucking  mouth  parts.  Among  the 
older  zoologists  there  has  been  considerable  dispute 
regarding  the  structure  of  the  mouth  parts,  whether  they 
were  really  sucking  or  biting.  In  fact,  the  structure  of 
the  sucking  tube  is  not  well  understood  yet.  The  mouth 
parts  are  exceedingly  delicate,  and  always  retracted  within 
the  head  out  of  sight  when  not  in  use.  For  this  reason 
they  are  very  difficult  to  study.  It  is  only  when  the  louse 
is  sucking  up  blood  from  its  host  that  the  rostrum  or  beak 
is  extended  and,  of  course,  buried  in  the  flesh  of  the  animal 
attacked. 

Schiodte,  a  Danish  naturalist,  has  given  us  the  most  ac- 
curate description  of  the  rostrum  (P.  vestimenli)  and  has 
given  an  account  of  his  work  in  a  very  pleasing  way.  He 
obtained  a  supply  of  the  lice  and  confined  them  in  vials  for 
several  days  without  food  to  sharpen  their  appetites.  At 
the  end  of  the  confinement  he  transferred  one  of  them  to 
the  back  of  his  hand  where  he  could  watch  its  movements 
with  a  hand  lens.  He  describes  the  behavior  of  the  louse 
as  follows :  "  Scarcely  does  the  abominable  little  monster 
feel  the  heat  of  the  skin  before  it  lays  aside  its  former  dis- 
heartened attitude,  and  begins  to  feel  at  ease,  its  antennae 
oscillate  for  joy,  and  it  stretches  all  six  legs  complacently 
out  from  the  body.  But  though  the  pleasure  and  surprise 


SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES  309 

at  the  sudden  transportation  into  congenial  surroundings 
for  the  first  moment  eclipse  everything  else,  hunger  soon 
asserts  its  claim,  sharpened  as  it  is  by  the  long  fast,  which 
has  rendered  its  stomach  and  intestines  quite  transparent. 
The  animal  raises  itself  on  its  legs,  walks  on  a  few  steps, 
seeking  and  feeling  its  way  with  its  antennse,  while  we 
followed  it  with  a  magnifier.  Presently  it  stops,  draws 
in  its  legs  a  little,  arches  its  back,  bends  the  head  down 
toward  the  skin  at  an  oblique  angle  while  it  probes  a  small 
dark  and  narrow  organ  repeatedly  forward,  and  draws  it 
back  through  the  fore  end  of  the  head ;  at  last  it  stands 
still,  with  the  point  of  the  head  firmly  abutted  against  the 
skin."  While  in  this  position  the  rostrum  was  buried  in 
the  flesh,  and  the  louse  was  pumping  out  the  blood. 
Schiodte  describes  in  detail  the  work  of  the  louse  in  obtain- 
ing its  supply  of  food.  He  made  an  attempt  to  dislodge 
the  insect  in  such  a  way  that  its  beak  would  still  be  ex- 
tended. As  soon,  however,  as  the  louse  was  dislodged  from 
the  flesh,  it  immediately  withdrew  the  beak  into  the  head 
so  that  it  could  not  be  seen.  Finally,  he  quickly  severed 
the  head  of  the  insect  from  its  body,  and  succeeded  in 
mounting  it  with  the  rostrum  still  extended.  There  was 
a  long  tube  furnished  with  hooks  near  the  base.  Inside  of 
the  tube  could  be  seen  four  slender  thread-like  projections. 
This  structure  evidently  formed  a  very  efficient  pumping 
apparatus. 

THE   HEAD   LOUSE 

Pediculus  humanus  (capitis) 

This  species  occurs  chiefly  among  the  hairs  of  the  head 
although  it  is  occasionally  found  on  other  parts  of  the 


310 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


body.  It  occurs,  chiefly,  on  individuals  of  uncleanly  habits 
and  especially  on  children  who  may  become  infested  from 
contact  with  their  playmates  at  school  or  other  places 
(Fig.  106). 

The  constant  movements  of  the  lice  and  the  insertions  of 
their  beaks  into  the  skin  to  suck  blood  set  up  an  irritation 
which  the  victim  tries  to  allay  by  scratching.  Railliet 
says  the  irritation  leads  to  the  production  of  papules  or 
even  to  vesicular  pustules  and 
that  the  excoriations  due  to 
the  scratching  with  the  exuda- 
tions therefrom  often  form  a 
crust  that  mats  the  hairs  to- 
gether. Such  a  condition 
exists  only  among  very  un- 
clean people  where  the  para- 
sites are  allowed  to  increase 
indefinitely. 

The  sexes  of  this  louse  differ 
quite  markedly  from  each 
other.  The  female  is  about 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in 

length  and  usually  larger  than  the  male,  sometimes  twice 
as  large.  They  multiply  rapidly,  for  the  female  is  capable 
of  laying  (Railliet)  at  least  fifty  eggs  in  the  space  of  six 
days  and  each  egg  will  hatch  in  about  six  days,  while  the 
young  lice  may  become  adults  in  about  eighteen  days. 
Thus  there  may  be,  under  the  most  favorable  conditions, 
a  complete  generation  within  one  month.  At  this  rate 
the  second  generation  would  number  2500  individuals, 
while  the  third  generation  would  furnish  125,000  of  these 
obnoxious  pests.  Fortunately,  such  conditions  probably 


FIG.  106.  —  Head  louse. 
(X  13.) 


SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES  311 

never  occur;  probably  the  young  lice  do  not  ordinarily 
come  to  maturity  in  so  short  a  period  of  time. 

The  eggs  or  "  nits  "  are  pear-shaped,  whitish,  and  fastened 
by  their  smaller  ends  to  the  hairs,  especially  to  those 
back  of  the  ears,  usually  near  the  bases  of  the  hairs. 
The  eggs  are  glued  to  the  hairs  by  a  gelatinous  sub- 
stance that  is  secreted  by  the  female  louse  when  they 
are  deposited. 

The  usual  color  of  the  head  louse  is  light  gray,  but  it 
varies  according  to  the  color  of  its  host.  For  instance, 
according  to  Murray,  it  is  nearly  black  on  the  West 
Africans,  dark  and  smoky  on  the  Hindoos,  yellowish  on  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  orange  on  the  Hottentots,  and 
dark  brown  on  the  South  American  Indians. 


THE   BODY   LOUSE 

Pediculus  corporis  (vestimenti) 

This  louse  (Fig.  107)  has  been  confused  with  the  head 
louse,  older  authorities  believing  them  to  be  the  same 
species.  More  recent  writers  generally  hold  that  they  are 
distinct.  The  body  louse  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
head  louse,  with  longer  antennae,  and  is  of  a  dirty  white 
color.  As  the  common  name  indicates,  this  species  fre- 
quents the  body  of  man.  They  conceal  themselves  in  the 
folds  of  the  clothing  where  it  is  difficult  to  find  them. 
Moreover,  they  lay  their  eggs  along  seams  and  wrinkles  of 
the  clothing  and  do  not  pass  to  the  skin  except  to  suck 
blood.  Their  existence  and  multiplication  depend,  there- 
fore, upon  the  length  of  time  their  host  retains  the  cloth- 
ing without  a  change.  In  the  case  of  soldiers  on  a  long 


312 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


campaign,  inmates  of  prisons,  and  other  places  where  the 
individuals  from  necessity  or  neglect  fail  to  wash  and 
change  their  clothing  at  frequent  intervals,  this  louse  be- 
comes very  abundant  and  troublesome.  Such  was  the  case 
among  the  Russian  soldiers  in  the  Crimean  War;  and 
among  our  own  soldiers  in  the  Civil  War,  the  body  lice 
familiarly  called  "graybacks/'  because  of  the  dark  color- 
ing on  the  back,  became 
abundant  and  most  an- 
noying. In  the  campaigns 
of  the  Civil  War  the 
soldiers  had  little  oppor- 
tunity to  change  their 
clothing,  and  not  much 
chance  to  wash  it,  other 
than  in  cold  water,  which 
does  not  kill  these  lice. 

Leeuwenhoek,  one  of 
our  very  oldest  zoologists 
who  worked  about  200 
years  ago  with  great  en- 
thusiasm, made  an  attempt 
to  find  out  something 
definite  about  the  life 

history  and  rate  of  development  of  the  body  louse.  He 
did  not  believe  the  popular  saying  that  a  louse  could 
become  a  grandfather  in  twenty-four  hours.  At  first  he 
thought  of  hiring  some  person  to  act  as  a  host  for  the  lice. 
Later,  he  changed  his  mind,  overcame  his  own  natural 
aversion  to  these  pests,  and  inclosed  two  large  females 
within  a  fine  black  stocking,  the  top  of  which  he  fastened 
tightly  around  his  leg  above  the  knee.  Here  he  allowed 


FIG.  107.  —  Body  louse.     (X  20.) 


SOME  HUMAN   PARASITES  313 

the  two  lice  to  live  for  six  days  and  obtain  their  sustenance 
from  his  leg.  At  the  end  of  this  period  he  removed  the 
stocking  and  found  fifty  eggs  around  one  of  the  females  and 
forty  eggs  in  another  part  of  the  stocking,  evidently  laid 
by  the  second  female  which,  however,  had  escaped.  He 
wore  the  stocking  for  yet  ten  days,  when  on  examination 
he  found  twenty-five  young  lice  which  so  disgusted  him 
and  dampened  his  enthusiasm  that  he  threw  the  whole 
thing  into  the  street.  Since  Leeuwenhoek's  time  the 
author  is  not  aware  that  any  scientist  has  ever  tried 
in  the  same  way  to  study  the  life  history  of  these 
lice. 

Recently  the  body  louse  has  come  under  suspicion  as  a 
carrier  of  typhus  fever  from  one  person  to  another.  Ty- 
phus fever  should  not  be  confused  with  typhoid  fever,  for 
one  is  quite  distinct  from  the  other.  Typhus  is  essentially 
a  disease  of  temperate  and  cold  climates  and  is  therefore 
common  in  Europe  and  in  some  parts  of  America.  It  also 
occurs  in  the  tropics  but  usually  only  at  high  altitudes  and 
ceases  at  the  advent  of  hot  weather.  It  is  usually  asso- 
ciated with  dirty  and  unsanitary  surroundings  and  is 
especially  prevalent  among  the  inmates  of  prisons.  It  has 
been  called  a  contagious  disease  but  is  now  thought  to  be 
conveyed  from  one  individual  to  another  probably  through 
the  agency  of  insects. 

Ricketts  and  Wilder  have  succeeded  in  transmitting 
the  typhus  fever  of  Mexico  (tabardillo)  to  the  monkey  by 
the  bite  of  the  body  louse  in  two  experiments.  The  lice 
in  one  instance  derived  their  infection  from  man  and  in 
another  from  monkey.  We  are  not  aware  that  the  fever 
has  been  experimentally  carried  from  man  to  man  by  the 
louse,  or  that  it  has  been  conclusively  shown  that  such 


314 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


transmission   actually   occurs.    The   evidence   obtained, 
however,  points  very  strongly  in  that  direction. 

The  disease  may  be  carried  by  other  blood-sucking 
insects. 

THE  CRAB  LOUSE 

Phthirius  pubis  (inguinalis) 

The  third  louse  infesting  man  is  very  distinct  from  the 
other  two  in  general  appearance.     Its  body  is  short  and 

broad,  in  fact, 
nearly  as  wide  as 
long.  The  legs  are 
very  stout,  espe- 
cially the  two  hind 
pairs,  and  are  al- 
ways spread  out 
laterally,  thus  in- 
creasing the  appar- 
ent width  of  the 
body.  The  body, 
as  a  whole,  reminds 
one  of  a  crab,  hence 
its  common  name, 
"crab  louse"  (Fig.  108).  This  louse  is  whitish  in  color 
writh  a  dusky  patch  on  each  shoulder  and  the  legs  are 
tinged  with  red. 

It  inhabits  the  pubic  region  particularly,  but  is  found  in 

the  arm  pits,  and  in  the  beard  and  occasionally  among  the 

hairs  of  the  eyebrows,  and  has  been  reported  on  the  head. 

This  louse  is  evidently  more  easily  communicated  from 

one  individual  to  another  than  either  of  the  other  species. 


FIG.  108.  —  Crab  louse.     (X  20.) 


SOME  HUMAN  PARASITES  315 

Instances  are  not  uncommon  in  which  infestations  of  this 
insect  have  been  contracted  by  using  a  public  water-closet. 
The  danger  of  unclean  lodging  houses  and  public  bath 
tubs  needs  hardly  be  mentioned.  Moreover,  this  species 
reproduces  more  rapidly  than  the  others  and  sometimes 
causes  serious  affections,  although  older  accounts  of  these 
have  probably  been  greatly  exaggerated.  The  eggs,  which 
are  pear-shaped,  are  attached  to  the  hairs.  They  hatch  in 
six  or  seven  days  and  in  fifteen  days  the  young  lice  are 
ready  for  reproduction. 

The  presence  of  the  lice  causes  a  severe  itching  followed 
by  reddish  inflamed  spots  over  the  regions  of  the  body 
infested.  If  allowed  to  go  on  undisturbed,  more  serious 
affections  take  place. 

Stiles  gives  the  following  synonymy  for  these  species  of 
human  lice :  — 

The  head  louse  :    P.  humanus  Linnaeus,  1758 ; 

P.  capitis  de  Geer,  1778 ; 

P.  cermcalis  Latreille,  1803. 
The  body  louse  :    P.  corporis  de  Geer,  1778 ; 

P.  vestimenti  Nitzsch,  1818 ; 

P.  tabescentium  Alt,  1824. 
The  crab  louse  :    Pediculus  pubis  Linnaeus,  1758 ; 

P.  inguinalis  Reichard,  1759; 

Phthirius    inguinalis    (Reichard)    Leach,    1815; 

Phthirius  pubis  (Linnaeus,  1758)  Kiichenmeister, 
1855. 

Methods  of  controlling  these  lice.  —  First  of  all  absolute 
cleanliness  is  a  prime  requisite  in  keeping  free  from  these 
parasites.  In  case  of  the  body  louse,  the  clothes  must  be 
steamed  or  cleaned  by  immersing  and  soaking  in  gasoline. 
Two  treatments  of  gasoline  should  kill  the  lice  and  eggs. 


316  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

For  the  head  louse,  sulfur  ointment  and  white  precipi- 
tate are  commonly  used.  If  desired,  the  hair  may  be  cut 
and  the  head  subjected  to  an  application  of  kerosene. 
This  will  kill  the  lice,  but  may  not  destroy  all  of  the  eggs. 
The  kerosene  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  too  long  on 
the  scalp. 

A  2  per  cent  carbolic  solution  may  be  used  and  is  said  to 
be  effective  against  the  eggs  ("nits").  Washing  with  a 
tincture  of  Cocculus  indicus  is  advised  by  some  writers, 
the  principal  recommendation  being  the  absence  of  odor. 

The  crab  louse  will  succumb  to  the  persistent  use  of 
mercurial  ointment. 

REFERENCES  TO   ECONOMIC  LITERATURE   ON  THE  HUMAN   LICE 

1869.     WALSH  and  RILEY.  — The  American  Entomologist,  Vol.   1, 

pp.  84-86. 
1884.     UHLER,  P.  R.  —  Standard  natural  history,  Vol.  II,  p.  209. 

1895.  RAILLIET,  A.  —  Traite  de  zoologie   medicale    et   agricole, 
p.  825. 

1896.  BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Our  household  insects,  p.  325. 

1896.     OSBORN,    H.  —  Some    insects    affecting   domestic    animals. 

Bull.  5,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  165. 
1907.     STILES,  CHARLES  W.  —  The  zoo-parasitic  diseases  of  man. 

Osier's  Modern  Medicine,  Vol.  1,  pp.  634-635. 
1910.     RICKETTS,  H.  T.,  and  WILDER,  R.  M.  —  The  transmission 

of  typhus  fever  of  Mexico  (tabardillo)  by  means  of   the  louse 

(Pediculus  vestimenti).    Jr.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc.,   Vol.  54,  pp. 

1304-1307. 


CHAPTER  XITT 

SOME  ANNOYING   PESTS  OF   MAN 

THERE  are  some  small  insects  and  closely  related  an- 
imals, certain  mites,  that  attack  man  and  cause  him 
much  annoyance  and  sometimes  serious  discomfort. 
Some  of  these  pests  come  no  nearer  the  home  than  the 
lawns  and  fields  adjacent  to  the  house,  while  others 
come  to  the  porches  and  often  into  the  rooms  where 
they  exhibit  wonderful  persistence  in  biting  and  worry- 
ing the  inmates.  Chief  among  these  are  the  redbugs, 
punkies,  and  black-flies. 

HARVEST   MITES,    "REDBUGS,"    OR    "CHIGGERS" 

Trombidium  sp. 

During  a  residence  of  eleven  years  in  the  Southern  states 
the  writer  has  had  ample  opportunity  to  become  ac- 
quainted in  a  very  realistic  way  with  redbugs  or  chiggers. 
It  would,  however,  convey  a  wrong  impression  if  we  did 
not  hasten  to  say  that  redbugs  are  not  confined,  by  any 
means,  to  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  but  they 
occur  as  far  north  as  Minnesota  and  east  to  the  Atlantic 
as  far  up  the  coast  as  New  Jersey.  Harvest  mites  are 
also  common  in  England  and  Scotland,  where  they  are 
known  as  the  harvest  mite  and  "gooseberry  bug."  In 
France  they  are  known  as  the  "rouget"  and  "red  flea" 
and  are  sometimes  so  abundant  in  grass-lands  that  they 
317 


318 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


interfere  seriously  with  the  work  of  the  peasants  in  gather- 
ing their  hay  and  grain  crops.  The  harvest  mites  occur 
also  in  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  in  parts  of  Germany, 
where  a  severe  infection  of  the  mites  is  called  "stachel- 
beerkrankheit."  Redbugs  are  abundant  and  troublesome 
in  Mexico,  where  they  are  called  "  Tlalsahuate  "  and  in  the 

West  Indies  where  they 
are  often  called  "  Bete 
rouge."  In  the  United 
States  they  are  also  given 
the  name  "chiggers." 

What  redbugs  are.  — 
Redbugs  are  the  young 
or  larval  forms  of  differ- 
ent species  of  true  mites 
that  belong  to  the  family 
Trombidiidae.  Probably 
all  of  the  redbugs  found 
in  the  United  States  be- 
long to  the  one  genus 
Trombidium ;  but  there 
is  yet  much  uncertainty 
regarding  the  actual 
species  of  which  the  red- 
bugs  are  the  immature  forms.  It  is  likely  that  more  than 
one  species  is  represented  by  the  redbugs.  The  harvest 
mite  has  been  variously  referred  to  the  species  Leptus  autum- 
nalis,  Trombidium  holosericeum  (Fig.  109),  and  to  the  genus 
Tetranychus,  while  the  redbug  commonest  in  this  country 
has  been  called  Leptus  irritans.  The  adults  of  the  harvest 
mites  or  redbugs  are  members  of  the  class  Arachnida,  to 
which  the  spiders  belong,  and  have  four  pairs  of  legs. 


FIG.  109.  —  Adult  of  harvest  mite 
(T.  holosericeum).     (X  20.) 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  319 

The  bodies  of  redbugs  are  always  red  in  color,  although 
some  are  much  darker  than  others.  This  color  is  not  due 
to  any  food  that  they  may  have  taken,  for  example,  blood, 
as  many  suppose.  Redbugs  are  very  small,  but  still 
visible  to  the  unaided  eye.  Their  bodies,  when  they 
hatch  from  the  eggs  at  least,  are  ovoid  or  nearly  circular 
and  more  or  less  clothed  with  bristles.  The  mouth  parts 
are  formed  for  puncturing  and  sucking.  Unlike  their 
parents  they  have  only  three  pairs  of  legs.  Redbugs  are 
parasitic,  as  a  usual  thing,  upon  insects.  After  the  mite 
becomes  attached  to  its  host,  its  body  becomes  engorged 
and  swollen  with  food.  When  full  fed,  the  young  mite 
loosens  its  hold  and  drops  to  the  ground,  where  it  seeks 
shelter  in  order  to  change  to  the  next  stage  in  its  life  his- 
tory. When  it  finally  becomes  adult,  it  has  four  pairs  of 
legs  and  in  this  stage  does  not  trouble  man,  nor  is  it 
parasitic  on  any  other  animal.  The  adult  harvest  mite 
wanders  around  and  feeds  upon  small  insects,  especially 
plant  lice  and  caterpillars.  One  species  has  been  found  to 
destroy  the  eggs  of  grasshoppers,  and  another  species  in 
France  has  been  found  destroying  the  Phylloxera  on  the 
roots  of  grapevines. 

The  hosts  of  redbugs.  —  These  small  mites  are  called 
harvest  mites  because  they  are  found  in  such  great  abun- 
dance toward  the  end  of  summer  in  fields  of  grass  or  grain, 
where  they  often  attack  the  workers  in  the  fields  and  cause 
much  annoyance,  even,  in  some  instances,  a  cessation  of 
work.  In  our  own  country  they  are  found  on  grass  and 
weeds  in  pastures  and  neglected  places,  on  bushes,  espe- 
cially raspberry  and  blackberry  bushes,  on  trees  in  hedge- 
rows, and  in  damp  locations  along  the  banks  of  streams, 
edges  of  woodlands,  and  in  other  shaded  situations.  They 


320  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

usually  avoid  the  sunlight  and  consequently  are  not  often 
found  on  closely  cropped  lawns  unless  these  are  shaded  by 
shrubs  or  trees. 

Redbugs  are  often  found  attached  to  the  bodies  of  insects, 
notably  to  grasshoppers  and  to  house-flies  underneath  the 
wings.  The  author  witnessed  a  rather  unusual  attack  of 
redbugs  on  young  chickens  in  Mississippi  at  one  time.  In 
this  case  they  occurred  in  clusters  and  formed  red  nodules 
or  tubercles  on  the  flesh  of  the  fowls.  In  one  tubercle 
seventeen  mites  were  counted  and  in  another  nineteen  were 
seen  all  closely  packed  together  like  small  red  berries 
with  their  heads  buried  in  the  flesh  like  ticks.  The  mites 
affected  their  hosts  seriously,  for  the  chickens  soon  con- 
tracted diarrhea,  grew  weaker,  and  finally  died. 

In  Europe,  a  closely  related  harvest  mite,  Leptus  autum- 
nalis,  seems  to  prefer  small  mammals  as  hosts,  such  as 
moles,  hares,  dogs,  and  cats.  It  occasionally  appears  on 
cows  and  on  cavalry  horses,  the  latter  of  which  have  been 
seriously  attacked  during  the  autumn  maneuvers  of  the 
army.  In  horses  the  mites  cause  an  affection  of  the  skin 
about  the  knees  and  hocks.  If  the  harvest  mites  confined 
themselves  to  plants  and  the  lower  animals  as  hosts,  we 
should  have  no  cause  of  complaint  against  them  here; 
but  it  is  their  habit  of  attacking  man  that  gives  us  so  much 
concern. 

Their  manner  of  attack  on  man  and  nature  of  the 
injury.  — The  redbugs  (Fig.  110)  are  so  small  that  when 
they  have  once  gained  access  to  the  body  of  an  individual 
they  can  easily  pass  through  the  meshes  of  the  finest  under- 
clothing or  stockings  and  reach  the  skin.  Hamilton,  in  a 
rather  humorous  article,  says  that  the  mites  wander  around 
until  they  find  the  openings  to  the  sweat  tubes  and  then 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN 


321 


work  their  way  down  these  tortuous  canals  until  the  blind 
ends  are  reached,  when  the  mites  die.  Banks  says  that 
"they  burrow  beneath  the  skin  and  produce  inflamed 
spots."  Other  observers  say  that  the  mites  first  injure  the 
skin  and  then  plunge  their  long  piercing  mouth  parts  into 
the  wound.  Sometimes  this  wound  is  located  near  the 
opening  of  a  sweat  pore  and  sometimes  not.  Evidently 
the  mite  does  not  enter  these  pores  as  a  habitual 
practice.  J.  C.  Bradley, 
who  has  observed  redbugs 
rather  carefully  and  who 
placed  his  notes  at  my  dis- 
posal, says  that  they  do  not 
burrow  underneath  the  skin 
but  may  enter  the  skin  by  a 
hair  follicle  or  sweat  pore, 
especially  if  disturbed.  He 
concludes  that  the  irrita- 
tion is  caused  by  some 
specific  poison  secreted  by 
the  mite  rather  than  by 
any  wounds  that  it  makes. 
At  any  rate,  the  mites 

set  up  a  severe  irritation.  On  some  persons  this  may 
take  place  within  a  short  time,  while  on  others  it  may 
not  be  felt  until  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
infection  of  the  mites.  Red  blotches,  from  the  size  of  a 
nickel  to  that  of  a  half-dollar,  appear  on  the  parts  of 
the  body  affected.  Along  with  the  appearance  of  the 
blotches  comes  an  intense  itching  sensation  which,  if 
allayed  momentarily  by  scratching,  returns  with  renewed 
intensity.  Very  often  a  slight  fever  accompanies  the 


FIG.  110.  — Young  of  harvest  mite. 
(X60.) 


322  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

eruptions  and  the  patient  is  liable  to  lose  sleep  and  suffer 
almost  unbearable  torture. 

Within  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  each  red  blotch 
is  surmounted  in  the  middle  with  a  tiny  water  blister. 
This  is  succeeded  by  a  small  scab,  and  the  irritation  gradu- 
ally subsides.  The  blisters  and  scabs  may  be  taken  as  a 
pretty  sure  indication  of  redbug  attack.  The  scab 
eventually  falls  off,  but  may  leave  a  scar  that  does  not 
disappear  for  weeks  in  some  cases. 

An  affection  by  harvest  mites  is  often  diagnosed  as 
"hives,"  nettlerash,  bites  of  mosquitoes,  or  fleas.  Young 
children  and  persons  with  delicate  skin  are  most  subject  to 
attack.  Laborers  and  other  persons  who  are  much  in  the 
fields  where  redbugs  abound  seem  to  become  immune  to 
their  attacks.  Perhaps  the  frequent  inoculations  finally 
work  toward  immunity.  The  mites  attack  those  parts 
of  the  body  first  that  are  most  exposed — nearest  the  ground. 
They  work  through  the  stockings  and  very  often  stop  at 
the  garters,  if  these  are  worn,  and  form  a  ring  of  red  blotches 
around  the  legs  at  these  places.  If  an  abundance  of  the 
mites  have  gained  access  to  the  body,  they  will  spread  over 
the  whole  person,  even  to  the  neck  and  arms.  Sometimes 
these  affections  result  seriously.  Hamilton  says  that  ery- 
sipelas of  the  lower  extremities  often  results  from  the 
bites  of  redbugs.  It  is  said  that  death  from  blood  poison- 
ing has  been  known. 

Life  history  of  the  mites.  —  Unfortunately,  very  little 
definite  information  is  available  regarding  the  life  history 
of  the  harvest  mites.  Only  a  few  forms  have  been  reared 
and  there  is  consequently  much  yet  to  learn  regarding  these 
creatures.  Banks  says  that  the  mature  forms  hibernate 
over  the  winter  in  the  soil  or  in  other  sheltered  situations. 


PLATE   V 


Blisters  on  leg  caused  by  redbugs,  enlarged. 


SO  ME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  323 

Those  that  manage  to  survive  until  spring  deposit  their 
eggs,  sometimes  as  many  as  400,  together  in  a  bunch  in  or 
upon  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  usually  brownish  in  color, 
very  small,  and  spherical.  By  earlier  workers  they  were 
considered  minute  forms  of  plants  known  as  fungi.  In 
time,  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  larval  mites  are  circular 
or  ovoid  in  outline,  very  small,  and  with  three  pairs  of 
legs,  each  ending  in  two  or  three  prominent  claws.  The 
mites  crawl  to  the  stems  of  grasses  and  weeds  and  eventu- 
ally gain  access,  if  possible,  to  an  insect.  After  feeding  on 
the  blood  and  juices  of  its  host,  the  body  of  the  mite 
becomes  elongated  and  swollen.  When  full  fed  it  loosens 
its  hold  and  drops  from  its  host  to  the  ground,  where  it 
seeks  some  kind  of  shelter  and  gradually  changes  in  shape 
but  does  not  molt.  "  The  new  parts  are  formed  under  the 
larval  skin,  which  in  a  few  weeks  cracks  and  discloses  the 
adult  Trombidium."  As  we  have  noted,  the  adults  live 
upon  aphids  and  small  caterpillars.  There  appears  to 
be  but  a  single  generation  produced  each  year. 

Methods  of  avoiding  redbugs  and  remedies  for  the 
irritation.  —  One  of  the  severest  infestations  the  author 
ever  knew  was  contracted  by  a  person  with  delicate  skin, 
subject  to  erysipelas,  who  sat  down  for  a  few  minutes  on 
the  ground  on  the  links  of  a  golf  club.  The  links  had 
just  been  laid  out  in  an  old  pasture  which  still  contained 
much  long  grass  and  a  good  many  plants  of  the  horse  bean, 
a  legume  quite  common  in  Texas.  The  body  of  the  indi- 
vidual was  completely  covered  with  the  large  inflamed  spots, 
even  to  the  neck,  although  none  appeared  on  the  face. 
The  torture  was  intense  for  a  week  and  the  infection  per- 
sisted for  a  much  longer  period.  The  thing  that  seemed 
to  give  the  most  relief  was  hot  baths.  No  person  subject 


324  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

to  attack  by  redbugs  should  ever  sit  on  the  ground  where 
there  is  the  slightest  chance  of  becoming  infested.  In  fact, 
it  is  dangerous  for  such  an  individual  even  to  walk  among 
long  grass,  weeds,  raspberry  or  blackberry  bushes,  or  in 
other  places  where  redbugs  are  liable  to  abound.  If  one 
does,  ordinary  flowers  of  sulfur  should  be  sprinkled  freely 
over  the  lower  extremities  and  inside  of  the  stockings. 
Bradley  emphasizes  this  remedy  very  strongly,  for  he  has 
had  experience  in  using  sulfur  and  in  going  without  it  in 
localities  where  redbugs  abound. 

If  a  hot  bath,  especially  in  water  to  which  a  liberal 
amount  of  salt  or  soap  has  been  added,  can  be  taken  within 
an  hour  or  two  after  infection,  it  will  often  give  relief. 

Redbugs  seem  to  be  most  prevalent  during  the  months 
of  June,  July,  August,  and  the  early  part  of  September. 
In  exceptionally  warm  seasons  and  far  south  they  may 
be  encountered  both  earlier  and  later  than  this. 

To  allay  the  irritation,  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia 
applied  to  the  affected  areas  is  useful.  Common  baking 
soda  dissolved  in  water  until  some  remains  in  the  bottom 
of  the  dish  or  until  a  supersaturated  solution  is  obtained 
lessens  the  irritation  and  affords  considerable  relief. 
Alcohol,  camphor,  and  Pond's  Extract  are  used  with  good 
effect.  Hamilton  says  that  an  effectual  remedy,  if  taken 
in  time,  is  a  thorough  sponging  with  a  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  one  ounce  in  a  quart  of  water,  after  a  good  soap  bath. 

Lawns,  closely  cropped,  will  be  free  from  redbugs,  except 
in  shaded  areas  near  shrubbery.  In  such  situations  a  piece 
of  cloth  may  be  saturated  with  kerosene  and  dragged  over 
the  grass.  This  may  be  followed  by  dusting  flowers  of 
sulfur  in  its  wake  with  good  results.  Weeds,  tall  grasses, 
blackberry  and  raspberry  bushes  must  be  kept  cut. 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  325 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  HARVEST  MITES 

1896.    HAMILTON,  JOHN.  —  The  red  bug.    Entomological  News, 

Vol.  VII,  p.  2. 
1896.     OSBORN,  H.  —  Harvest  mites ;   chiggers.     Bull.  5,  n.s.,  Bu. 

Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  251. 

1905.  BANKS,  NATHAN.  —  A  treatise  on  the  Acarina  or  mites.    Proc. 
U.  S.  Nat.  Mas.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  p.  1. 

1906.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  Harvest  mites  or  "chiggers."    Circ. 
77,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

1906.     BRAUN,  MAX.  —  The  animal  parasites  of  man,  p.  351. 

1908.  WASHBURN,  F.  L.  —  The  irritating  harvest  mites  or  "jigger." 
Twelfth  Kept,  of  the  State  Ent.  of  Minn.,  p.  156. 

1909.  GOSSARD,  H.  A.  —  Harvest  mites,  "jiggers,"  or  "chiggers." 
Press  Bull,  of  the  Ohio  Expt.  Stat.,  205. 

1909.    HERRICK,  GLENN  W.  —  Notes  on  mites  affecting  chickens. 
Jr.  of  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  2,  pp.  341-342. 


WASPS 
Vespa  germanica  and  Vespa  maculata 

It  often  happens  that  the  two  species  of  wasps  men- 
tioned, namely,  the  common  yellow-jacket  and  the  bald- 
faced  hornet,  build  their  nests  near  a  house  and  become 
unwelcome  guests  about  the  premises  and  in  the  rooms. 
The  former,  especially,  are  fond  of  the  juice  of  broken  or 
discarded  fruit  and  of  sweet  liquids.  They  often  swarm 
over  fruit  refuse  and  visit  wells  and  other  sources  of  water 
to  obtain  moisture.  Usually  they  are  the  cause  of  more 
nervousness  and  fright  than  of  actual  injury,  although  they 
may  occasionally  sting  horses  and,  what  they  consider, 
intruding  humans. 

Life  history  and  habits  of  these  wasps.  —  The  yellow- 
jackets  (Fig.  Ill)  are  small,  somewhat  slenderer  than  the 


326 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


FIG.  111.  —  Yellow-jacket. 
(X3.) 


worker  honey  bee,  and  black 
with  yellow  stripes  around  the 
body.  Each  worker  and  queen 
is  provided  with  a  very  efficient 
sting  which  they  can  use  most 
effectively  when  they  consider 
there  is  need  for  it.  They  are 
busy  creatures  and  when  treated 
with  ordinary  discretion  will  go 
peacefully  about  their  business. 
The  species  of  yellow-jacket 
under  consideration  is  a  Euro- 
pean species  and  in  its  native  home  sometimes  builds  its 
nest  in  trees,  but  here  in  America  it  builds  its  nest  in 
hollow  logs  and  stumps,  under  boards,  and  occasionally 
underground.  These  underground  nests  are  often  very 
large,  as  big  as  a  half-bushel  basket,  and  communicate 
with  the  open  air  by  a  single 
(rarely  two)  small  openings. 
The  nest  is  enveloped  with 
a  covering  of  papery  ma- 
terial and  the  number  of 
inmates  may  reach  the 
amazing  total  of  fifteen  to 
twenty  thousand,  the  num- 
ber varying  with  the  season. 
The  bald-faced  hornet 
(Fig.  112)  is  a  much  larger 
wasp,  black  marked  with 
white,  especially  on  the 

face,    hence    its    common       FlG.  112._Baid-faced  hornet. 
name.     This   wasp   builds  (x2|.) 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  327 

its  nest  among  the  branches  of  trees  or  attached  to  the 
projecting  eaves  of  houses  and  barns.  These  nests  are 
often  very  large  and  always  more  or  less  conical  in  shape 
with  an  opening  at  the  bottom.  They  are  always  covered 
with  a  stout,  thick  gray  papery  material  collected  from 
old  stumps,  rails,  and  boards. 

A  community  of  wasps  is  very  much  unlike  a  colony  of 
honey  bees  in  that  all  of  the  wasps  desert  the  nest  in  the 
fall  and  the  males  and  workers  all  die,  leaving  only  the 
queens  who  crawl  away  into  protected  nooks  and  crannies 
to  pass  the  winter.  In  the  spring,  the  queens  come  forth 
from  their  winter  hiding  places  and  start  new  homes. 
Each  one  begins  by  making  a  small  nest  in  which  she  lays 
a  few  eggs.  These  hatch  and  produce  only  workers, 
which  immediately  relieve  the  queen  of  all  her  labors 
except  that  of  laying  eggs.  The  workers  now  begin  to 
enlarge  the  nest,  bring  food,  and  look  after  the  young. 
The  activities  and  increase  of  the  community  go  on  during 
the  summer  season  until  fall,  when  the  home  is  broken  up, 
leaving  only  the  queens  to  survive  the  winter  season. 

There  are  other  wasps  known  as  Polistes,  that  often 
build  their  nests  in  the  attics  of  houses.  These  wasps  are 
dark  in  color  and  have  a  spindle-shaped  abdomen  united 
with  the  thorax  by  a  slender  waist.  They  build  a  nest 
composed  of  a  single  comb  suspended  by  a  short  stem 
from  its  support.  The  comb  is  not  covered  with  an 
envelope  of  paper  but  is  left  perfectly  bare.  The  Polistes 
wasps  are  not  pugnacious  and  may  be  considered  generally 
harmless,  for  they  rarely  sting. 

Hornets  as  fly  catchers.  —  The  bald-faced  hornet, 
especially,  catches  many  house-flies  as  food  for  the  young 
wasp  larvse.  A  correspondent  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker 


328  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

writes  :  "  Over  the  path  leading  to  my  stables,  on  the  corner 
limb  of  a  shade  maple,  hardly  six  feet  from  our  heads,  and 
within  fifty  feet  of  the  house  last  summer  was  a  large 
hornets'  nest.  The  result  was  an  absence  of  flies  for  days 
at  a  time.  Over  the  doors  of  my  horse  stable  was  another 
large  nest,  with  similar  absence  of  flies.  A  neighbor,  a 
physician,  had  four  nests  in  his  house  grounds,  and  no 
flies.  No  one  of  his  family,  or  mine,  has  ever  been  stung 
—  hornets  and  children  are  the  best  of  friends." 

These  observations  are  very  interesting.  The  English 
entomologist,  Westwood,  writing  in  1840,  quotes  from  St. 
John's  "Letters  to  an  American  Farmer"  to  the  effect 
that  "The  Americans,  aware  of  their  (hornets')  service  in 
destroying  flies,  sometimes  suspend  a  hornets'  nest  in  their 
parlors."  Again,  in  1869,  Benjamin  D.  Walsh,  an  Ameri- 
can entomologist,  writes  that,  "Some  persons  in  America 
have  turned  this  insect-devouring  propensity  of  hornets 
to  good  purpose  by  suspending  one  of  their  nests  in  a 
house  much  infested  by  the  common  house-fly.  In  such  a 
situation  we  have  been  told  that  they  soon  make  a  clear- 
ance of  the  obnoxious  flies;  and  so  long  as  you  do  not 
meddle  with  them,  they  will  not  meddle  with  you."  The 
author  has  never  had  the  good  fortune  to  know  any  one 
personally  who  has  used  this  unique  method  of  destroying 
house-flies.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  we  believe 
the  good  housewife  had  rather  take  her  chances  of  happi- 
ness among  the  house-flies  than  with  a  good  big  nest  of 
hornets  as  kitchen  companions. 

The  young  grubs  in  the  nests  of  hornets  are  fed  on  the 
bodies  of  insects,  cut  and  chewed  into  fine  pieces  by  the 
workers  of  the  colony.  Whenever  flies  are  available,  they 
certainly  furnish  a  considerable  source  of  food  supply,  as 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  329 

any  one  can  determine  by  watching  a  hornet  catching  the 
flies  and  carrying  them  to  the  nest.  When  one  recalls 
that  a  large  hornets'  nest  may  contain  several  thousand 
cells  and  that  each  one  of  a  large  number  of  these  may 
contain  a  hungry  grub  it  would  not  be  surprising  to  find 
the  house-flies  in  close  proximity  to  the  nest  kept  well 
under  control. 

Methods  of  controlling  wasps.  —  The  colonies  of  yellow- 
jackets  may  be  destroyed  by  pouring  a  goodly  quantity 
of  carbon  bisulfide  into  the  opening  of  the  nest.  This, 
of  course,  should  be  done  after  dusk  and  after  all  the  in- 
mates have  entered  for  the  night. 

The  entrance  to  the  suspended  nest  of  the  hornets  may 
be  plugged  after  dark  and  the  nest  broken  loose  and 
burned  or  soaked  with  kerosene.  It  is  said  that  these 
hornets  may  be  destroyed  by  throwing  kerosene  on  the 
nest  when  it  will  soak  through  and  kill  the  inmates. 


"PUNKIES" 
Ceratopogon  stellifer  et  al. 

The  local  inhabitant,  the  summer  visitor,  the  traveler, 
hunter,  and  camper  in  the  forests  of  the  northern  United 
States  are  well  acquainted  with  those  tiny,  almost  invisi- 
ble flies  called  "punkies."  On  account  of  their  size  the 
Indians  of  Maine  have  given  them  the  very  appropriate 
name  of  "  no-see-um,"  while  in  certain  parts  of  our  country, 
notably  in  Texas,  they  are  called  sand  flies.  It  is  truly 
remarkable  that  such  tiny  creatures  are  capable  of  inflict- 
ing so  much  torment  on  human  beings.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one  who  has  felt  the  punctures  of 


330  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

these  tiny  pests  that  their  "bite"  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  their  size.  As  Lugger  says,  "  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  this  small  being  can  harbor  the  vast  amount  of 
'cussedness'  it  is  known  to  possess."  When  the  writer 
first  met  with  these  flies  in  the  Adirondacks  it  took  him 
some  time  to  find  out  what  new  disease  had  gotton  hold 
of  him.  Finally,  close  observation  of  a  burning  spot  on 
the  hand  disclosed  one  of  these  minute  insects  at  work, 
and  a  pocket  lens  solved  the  mystery  at  once.  Later  we 
had  opportunity  to  stow  away  several  choice  specimens  in 
a  vial  of  alcohol,  which  unfortunately  got  broken  in  transit 
so  that  we  are  awaiting  another  season  to  determine  just 
what  species  is  a  frequenter  of  our  camp. 

Description  and  distribution  of  punkies.  —  A  punkie  is  a 
minute  fly  belonging  to  the  same  great  order  of  insects  as 
the  mosquito  and  the  common  house-fly.  There  are  nearly 
one  hundred  species  of  these  flies  now  represented  in  the 
U.  S.  National  Museum  but  fortunately  not  all  of  them 
"  bite."  At  least  six  species,  however,  are  knowri  to  annoy 
man. 

The  legs  of  punkies  are  long  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  body  and  the  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  piercing 
and  sucking.  The  wings  of  many  forms  are  more  or  less 
clothed  with  hairs  which  often  vary  in  color,  thus  impart- 
ing a  spotted  effect  to  these  organs. 

Punkies  are  apparently  distributed  all  over  the  United 
States,  for  they  have  been  collected  from  Maine  to  Florida 
and  California.  They  are  usually  more  abundant  in  the 
vicinity  of  streams  or  lakes  or  in  the  damp  forests. 

Habits  of  punkies.  —  Punkies  will  apparently  attack 
any  part  of  the  body  that  is  exposed,  although  in  the  case 
of  the  author,  his  hands  have  suffered  most.  Other 


SOME   ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  331 

observers  have  noted  the  inclination  of  the  pests  to  attack 
more  particularly  the  head  in  among  the  hair.  Pratt, 
while  among  the  mountains  of  Virginia,  counted  at  one 
time  twenty-five  individuals  among  the  hair  on  the  head 
of  his  boy  guide.  It  is  astonishing  how  persistent  the  tiny 
rascals  are  in  their  attempts  to  obtain  blood.  They  will 
bury  their  beaks  in  the  flesh  and  suck  the  blood  until 


FIG.  113.  — A  punkie  (C.  stellifer),  much  enlarged. 

their  bodies  are  near  to  bursting.  The  effect  of  the  bite 
varies  on  different  persons.  We  have  always  found  it  to 
produce  a  burning,  itching  sensation  very  annoying  and 
very  uncomfortable.  No  serious  consequences,  however, 
have  ever  been  experienced.  Not  so  with  others  though, 
for  in  some  cases  pimple-like  eruptions  occur,  looking 
much  like  the  effect  of  posion  ivy.  A  correspondent  in 
Texas  writes  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology  concern- 
ing a  punkie  (Fig.  113)  (Ceratopogon  stellifer)  that  is 
abundant  in  his  locality,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  creeks 


332  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

choked  with  logs.  He  says  when  he  first  went  to  Texas  that 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  pulling  off  his  shoes  and  sitting  down 
to  read.  Under  these  circumstances  he  was  grievously 
tormented  by  the  bites  of  the  sand  flies,  especially  around 
the  ankles  and  wrists.  His  feet  and  hands  would  soon 
burn  as  though  he  had  been  wading  through  nettles. 

Pratt  says  that  the  Virginia  punkie  is  very  troublesome 
to  man  and  domestic  animals.     "  If  milking  is  put  off  later 


FIG.  114.  —  A  punkie  (C.  guttipennis) ,  much  enlarged. 

than  usual  in  the  morning,  they  drive  the  cows  almost 
frantic  by  their  persistence,  and  while  that  process  is  going 
on  the  operator,  having  both  hands  engaged,  is  at  their 
mercy." 

Life  history.  —  Very  little  is  known  of  the  life  histories 
of  these  flies.  In  fact,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  find,  almost 
nothing  is  known  save  what  F.  C.  Pratt  has  observed 
regarding  the  life  history  of  what  he  calls  the  Virginia 
punkie  (Fig.  114)  (Ceratopogon  guttipennis).  He  found 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  333 

the  larvae  in  some  dirty  water  holes  in  the  hollows  of  pop- 
lar stumps  in  company  with  larvae  of  mosquitoes.  The 
eggs  were  not  found.  Evidently  the  larvae  live  upon  the 
material  found  in  the  dirty  water  and  upon  the  dead 
wrigglers  as  well  as  on  the  cast  skins  of  the  larvae  and 
pupae  of  the  mosquitoes.  He  also  found  them  apparently 
devouring  a  rat-tailed  maggot,  the 
larva  of  a  fly  that  lives  in  filthy 
water. 

The  larva  of  this  Virginia  punkie, 
when  full-grown,  is  not  quite  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  long,  and  it  is  very 
slender,  in  fact,  thread-like  in  appear- 
ance (Fig.  115).  Moreover,  it  is 
white  in  color,  with  a  brownish  head 
and  appears  much  like  a  very  small 
worm.  It  has  twelve  segments  in 
the  body,  besides  the  head,  and 
moves  with  a  sinuous  motion  like  a 
snake.  The  larvae  frequently  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  then 
descend  and  squirm  along  the  bottom.  FIG.  115.  —  Larva  and 
Pratt  kept  some  of  the  larvae  through 
the  winter  in  a  cold  room  where  the 
water  did  not  freeze.  In  the  spring  the  larvae  trans- 
formed to  pupae  from  which  adult  flies  issued  from  April 
27th  to  May  8th.  He  remarks  that  it  is  possible  that- 
these  larvae  freeze  up  in  the  water  during  the  winter, 
then  thaw  out  in  the  spring  and  complete  the  life  history 
of  the  insect. 

The  pupa  (Fig.  115)  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
of  a  brown  color,  and  has  eight  abdominal  segments.    It 


334  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

remains  in  a  perpendicular  position  just  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water,  presumably  with  its  two  short  breath- 
ing tubes  in  connection  with  the  air. 

Breeding  places  of  punkies.  —  Comstock  says  the  larvae 
live  under  the  bark  of  decaying  branches,  under  leaves, 
and  in  the  sap  flowing  from  trees.  Certain  species  of  the 
genus  Ceratopogon  have  been  bred  from  horse  and  cow 
manure  and  the  larvse  have  been  found  on  the  underside 
of  dry  cow  dung.  The  larvae  of  other  species  have  been 
found  in  the  nests  of  ants,  while  others  have  been  found 
beneath  the  bark  of  old  dead  trees  in  moist  places.  One 
thing  is  very  evident,  namely,  that  there  is  abundant 
opportunity  for  adding  to  our  scanty  knowledge  of  the 
habits  and  life  histories  of  these  small  but  interesting 
insects. 

Methods  of  control.  —  From  the  very  nature  of  the 
pests  they  are  hard  to  control.  The  smudges  recom- 
mended for  the  black-flies  will  also  repel  the  punkies. 
Screening  is  of  no  avail  because  they  pass  through  any 
useful  mesh.  Applications  of  certain  substances  to  the 
face  and  hands,  as  is  done  to  repel  mosquitoes,  are  often 
useful  in  preventing  attacks  of  the  punkies. 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  "PUNKIES" 

1895.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Manual    for    the    study   of     insects, 
p.  441. 

1896.  LUGGER,  OTTO.  —  Insects  injurious  in  1896.     Bull.  48,  Minn. 
Expt.  Stat,  pp.  197-198. 

1907.     PRATT,  F.  C.  —  Notes  on  "punkies."   Bu.  Ent.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agri.,  Bull.  64,  Pt.  III. 

See  the    article  by  Pratt  for  further   references  on   the  habits 
and  distribution  of  "  punkies." 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  335 

THE   BLACK-FLIES 

Simulium  venustum  et  al. 

The  black-flies,  although  not  strictly  household  insects, 
are  yet  very  annoying  to  people  living  in  certain  parts  of 
the  United  States  especially  in  certain  wooded  areas  of  the 
more  northern  latitudes.  The  black-flies  are  also  very 
troublesome  to  campers,  summer  residents,  lumbermen, 
and  hunters-,  whenever  they  invade  the  territory  of  these 
insects  during  the  breeding  season.  Moreover,  a  noted 
worker,  Sambon,  has  come  to  the  conclusion,  from  certain 
careful  observations  he  has  made,  "that  a  minute  blood- 
sucking fly  of  the  genus  Simulium  is,  in  all  probability,  the 
agent  by  which  pellagra  is  conveyed."  The  fact  that  the 
dreaded  disease  pellagra,  which  seems  to  be  growing  more 
common  in  the  United  States,  may  be  distributed  through 
the  agency  of  black-flies  has  aroused  much  interest  in  these 
insects.  All  of  the  black-flies  with  which  we  are  concerned 
belong  to  the  genus  Simulium. 

Description,  distribution,  and  habits  of  black-flies.  — 
These  insects  are  members  of  the  order  Diptera,  and  the 
females  have  strong  piercing  and  sucking  mouth  parts. 
The  mouth  parts  of  the  males  are  not  so  well  developed 
and  seem  incapable  of  drawing  blood.  The  black-flies 
have  short,  stout,  black  bodies  with  broad  wings  and  a 
hump-shouldered  appearance,  due  to  the  head's  being  bent 
under  the  large  humped  thorax.  They  are  all  small, 
varying  in  length  from  ^  to  ^  of  an  inch.  They  are 
remarkable  for  the  immense  numbers  in  which  they  swarm 
from  streams  in  early  spring  and  for  the  fierceness  and 
persistence  with  which  the  females  of  certain  species  punc- 


336  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

ture  the  flesh  of  man  and  beast  whenever  opportunity  is 
offered.  The  males,  as  indicated  by  the  structure  of 
their  mouth  parts,  are  harmless.  In  general,  black-flies 
are  more  annoying  to  man  than  strictly  injurious,  although 
several  cases  of  reputed  deaths  due  to  the  bites  of  these 
flies  are  on  record.  Some  people  certainly  suffer  much 
torture  from  the  attacks  of  black-flies  in  northern  latitudes. 
They  are  active  during  the  day  only  and  seem  to  prefer 
bright  sunshiny  weather.  It  is  said  that  the  flies  will  oc- 
casionally bite  on  moonlight  nights. 

The  young,  or  larvae,  of  black-flies  live  in  swiftly  flowing 
water.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  patches  beneath  the  water 
and  attached  to  stones  or  other  objects.  Here  they  hatch 
and  the  larvae  finally  transform  to  pupae.  The  adults 
escape  from  the  pupal  skins  and  rise  to  the  surface  each 
in  a  bubble  of  air.  In  some  instances  so  many  of  the 
adults  emerge  at  the  same  time  that  the  water  is  said  to 
fairly  boil  as  each  one  arises  in  its  air  bubble. 

There  are  two  species  that  occur,  at  times  in  vast  swarms, 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  Illinois  southward,  namely, 
the  turkey-gnat  (S.  meridionale)  and  the  buffalo-gnat 
(S.  pecuarum).  These  are  essentially  southern  forms, 
although  they  occur  from  New  Hampshire  to  Texas. 
They  are  a  most  serious  pest  to  stock  in  the  South  and  often 
cause  a  tremendous  loss  of  life  among  mules,  cattle,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  fowls  along  the  regions  bordering  the  lower 
Mississippi.  The  animal  attacked  becomes  frantic  and 
runs  wild  at  first,  but  finally  grows  quiet,  lies  down,  and 
dies,  perhaps  all  within  the  space  of  three  or  four  hours. 
Even  deer  come  to  the  smudges  built  by  the  planters  and 
occasionally  allow  people  to  rub  the  gnats  from  their 
bodies. 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  337 

The  black-flies  of  the  North  are  S.  venustum,  S.  vittatum, 
and  S.  hirtipes.  It  is  generally  supposed  and  generally 
said  that  the  first  species  is  the  one  particularly  trouble- 
some to  man  in  the  northern  woods.  This  species  ranges 
from  Maine  to  Florida  and  Texas  and  evidently  has  two 
or  three  generations  during  a  season.  This  would  lead 
me  to  think  that  S.  venustum  is  not  the  biting  species 
in  the  Adirondacks,  or  else  the  first  generation  is  com- 
posed of  biting  individuals,  while  the  females  of  the  later 
generations  do  not  bite.  The  writer  has  spent  two  seasons 
at  Cranberry  Lake  in  the  Adirondacks  from  the  1st  of 
July  to  the  5th  of  September  and  has  not  been  troubled 
with  black-flies.  The  inhabitants  in  the  vicinity  of  Cran- 
berry Lake  say  that  they  are  not  troubled  with  black- 
flies  after  the  middle  of  July.  There  is  also  a  saying  that 
when  the  black-flies  put  on  their  white  stockings  the  biting 
is  over.  S.  venustum  is  the  species  with  white-banded 
legs  or,  as  they  say,  "white  stockings."  Moreover, 
Needham,  who  has  observed  this  species  in  the  Adirondacks, 
says,  "It  must  be  another,  earlier  species  of  black-fly 
which  makes  all  the  trouble  in  the  Adirondacks  with  its 
bite ;  for  this  one  is  quite  peaceably  disposed."  On  the 
other  hand,  S.  hirtipes  occurs  in  the  Adirondacks,  is  known 
to  be  a  vicious  and  persistent  biter,  and  has  only  one 
generation  a  year,  which  appears  in  May  and  June.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  this  is  the  particularly  annoying  species 
in  the  Adirondacks. 

Injuries  by  black-flies  to  man.  —  The  injuries  to  human 
beings  by  black-flies  are,  on  occasion,  very  severe.  The 
effect  of  the  bite  of  a  black-fly  is  much  more  severe  than  that 
of  a  mosquito.  It  is  evident  that  the  saliva  injected  into 
the  wound  by  the  flv  has  a  serious  effect  both  on  the  lower 


338  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

animals  and  on  man,  although  man  seems  more  resistant 
than  the  former.  There  are  several  cases  of  deaths  pro- 
duced by  the  bites  of  black-flies  that  seem  fairly  well 
authenticated.  The  bite  of  a  black-fly  has  been  likened 
by  Webster  to  the  rude  puncture  of  a  blunt,  hot  awl,  leaving 
a  dull  aching  pain  behind. 

C.  V.  Riley,  writing  of  the  buffalo-gnat  in  1886,  says :  "  Yet 
sufficient  facts  are  on  record  to  show  that  if  the  gnats 
attack  a  person  suddenly  in  large  swarms  and  find  him 
unprepared  or  far  away  from  any  shelter,  they  may  cause 
death.  ...  In  1884  several  persons  were  killed  by 
buffalo-gnats.  H.  A.  Winter,  from  near  Helena,  Arkansas, 
while  on  a  hunting  trip,  was  attacked  by  them  one  and  a 
half  miles  from  home  while  passing  some  low  ground. 
Running  towards  a  house,  he  was  seen  to  fall  dead.  All 
exposed  parts  of  his  body  had  turned  black.  Another 
man  was  killed  near  Wynne  Station,  Arkansas,  on  the 
Iron  Mountain  Railroad." 

Webster  says  that  during  the  scourge  of  black-flies 
in  the  South  from  1881  to  1884  several  people  were  killed 
in  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  by  the  bites  of  these  gnats,  as 
he  was  able  to  prove  by  the  testimony  of  physicians  who 
attended  the  victims. 

A.  E.  Buck  gives  a  more  detailed  case  of  death  by 
buffalo-gnats  in  a  letter  written  to  Webster.  It  seems  that 
a  Mr.  Stokes,  nephew  of  Buck,  went  fishing  in  company  with 
a  party  and  they  all  crossed  over  to  an  island  wrhere  the 
gnats  were  very  numerous.  The  members  of  the  party, 
with  the  exception  of  Stokes,  finally  left  the  island,  taking 
the  boat  with  them.  Stokes  could  not  swim  and  was 
consequently  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  flies.  It  rained  and 
the  fire  that  he  had  went  out,  so  that  he  was  deprived  of  the 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  339 

benefit  of  the  smoke.  He  fought  the  gnats  until  near 
night  before  he  could  make  any  one  hear.  He  was  finally 
rescued,  however,  but  died  before  morning.  The  narrator 
says,  "  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  buffalo-gnats  killed 
him." 

The  effect  upon  man  of  the  species  especially  obnoxious 
in  the  northern  woods  has  never  proved  to  be  so  serious, 
yet  their  bites  are  severe,  as  any  one  familiar  with  them 
can  attest.  Packard  describes  these  pests  so  well,  as  he 
found  them  along  the  Labrador  Coast,  that  he  is  worth 
quoting  in  full.  "The  black-fly  is  even  a  more  formidable 
pest  than  the  mosquito.  In  the  northern  subarctic  regions, 
it  opposes  a  barrier  against  travel.  The  Labrador  fisher- 
man spends  his  summer  on  the  sea  shore,  scarcely  daring  to 
penetrate  the  interior  on  account  of  the  swarms  of  these 
flies.  During  a  summer  residence  on  this  coast,  we  sailed 
up  the  Esquimaux  River  for  six  or  eight  miles,  spending  a 
few  hours  at  a  house  situated  on  the  bank.  The  day  was 
warm  and  but  little  wind  blowing,  and  the  swarms  of 
black-flies  were  absolutely  terrific.  In  vain  we  frantically 
waved  our  net  among  them,  allured  by  some  rare  moth ; 
after  making  a  few  desperate  charges  in  the  face  of  the 
thronging  pests,  we  had  to  retire  to  the  house,  where  the 
windows  actually  swarmed  with  them ;  but  here  they 
would  fly  in  our  faces,  crawl  under  one's  clothes,  where 
they  even  remain  and  bite  in  the  night.  The  children  in 
the  house  were  sickly  and  worn  by  their  unceasing  tor- 
ments ;  and  the  shaggy  Newfoundland  dogs,  whose  thick 
coats  would  seem  to  be  proof  against  their  bites,  ran  from 
their  shelter  beneath  the  bench  and  dashed  into  the  river, 
their  only  retreat.  In  cloudy  weather,  unlike  the  mos- 
quito, the  black-fly  disappears,  only  flying  when  the  sun 


340  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

shines.  The  bite  of  the  black-fly  is  often  severe,  the  crea- 
ture leaving  a  large  clot  of  blood  to  mark  the  scene  of  its 
surgical  triumphs." 

In  Agassiz's  "Lake  Superior, "  written  by  Cabot,  we  get 
some  interesting  notes  on  the  black-fly  as  it  occurred  in 
1848  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes.  At  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  on  June  28th  they  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
"black-fly,  a  little  insect  resembling  the  common  house- 
fly, but  darker  on  the  back,  with  white  spots  on  the  legs, 
and  two-thirds  as  large,  being  about  two  lines  in  length. 
They  are  much  quicker  in  their  motions,  and  much  more 
persevering  in  their  attacks  than  the  mosquito,  forcing 
their  way  into  any  crevice,  for  instance,  between  the 
glove  and  coat-sleeve.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  easily 
killed  as  they  stick  to  their  prey  like  bull-dogs." 

Farther  north  they  met  the  fly  in  more  force,  as  the 
narrative  testifies.  "  Neither  the  love  of  the  picturesque, 
however,  nor  the  interests  of  science,  could  tempt  us  into 
the  woods,  so  terrible  were  the  black-flies.  This  pest  of 
flies,  which  all  the  way  hither  had  confined  our  ramblings 
on  shore  pretty  closely  to  the  rocks  and  the  beach,  and  had 
been  growing  constantly  worse  and  worse,  here  reached 
its  climax.  Although  detained  nearly  two  days  .  .  .  — 
yet  we  could  only  sit  with  folded  hands,  or  employ  our- 
selves in  arranging  specimens,  and  such  other  occupa- 
tions as  could  be  pursued  in  camp,  and  under  the  protec- 
tion of  a  'smudge.'  One  whom  scientific  ardor  tempted 
a  little  wray  up  the  river  in  a  canoe  after  water-plants, 
came  back  a  frightful  spectacle,  with  blood-rings  around 
his  eyes,  his  face  bloody,  and  covered  with  punctures. 
The  next  morning  his  head  and  neck  were  swollen  as  if 
from  an  attack  of  erysipelas." 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN 


341 


One  wonders  if  a  person,  forced  to  remain  on  an  island 
all  day  with  these  pests  and  without  a  smudge  for  protec- 
tion, could  survive  the  attacks  of  these  northern  black- 
flies. 

Life  history  of  a  black-fly.  —  The  life  histories  of  most 
of  our  black-flies  are  very  imperfectly  known.  The  species 
(Fig.  116)  S.  pictipes  occurs 
abundantly  in  the  streams  in 
the  vicinity  of  Ithaca,  New 
York.  In  the  summer  of 
1889  Miss  R.  O.  Phillips 
studied  the  life  history  of 
this  species  in  detail,  but 
her  results  embodied  in  a 
thesis  have  never  been  pub- 
lished. The  following  ac- 
count of  this  black-fly  based 
upon  Miss  Phillips's  work  will 
serve  as  generally  repre- 
sentative of  these  insects. 

The  female  flies  hover  in 
small  swarms  over  a  thin 
sheet  of  swiftly  flowing 

water.  Now  and  then  one  darts  downward  and  quickly 
fastens  an  egg  to  the  surface  of  the  rock  beneath  the 
water.  The  eggs  are  light  yellow  at  first  and  are  laid 
in  patches  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  The  eggs,  which 
soon  turn  brown  after  being  deposited,  depend  upon 
sunlight  for  their  development.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions they  begin  to  hatch  in  about  eight  days.  The 
larvse  are  long  and  slender,  more  or  less  cylindrical  in 
shape,  although  smaller  in  the  middle  and  blackish  in 


FIG.  116.  —  A  black-fly  (S  pic- 
tipes).    (X  10.) 


342  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

color  (Fig.  117).  At  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  is  a 
disk-like  sucker  fringed  with  minute  hooks  by  which  the 
larva  fastens  itself  securely  to  the  rocks.  The  larvae 
attached  by  the  posterior  ends  stand  upright  in  the  water 
unless  the  current  is  too  swift,  in  which  case  their  bodies 
incline  downstream.  They  are  so  numerous  in  many 
places  that  they  form  a  black  moss-like  carpet  over  the 
rocks  for  large  areas.  The  head  of  the  larva  bears  two 
fan-shaped  organs  (Fig.  117),  each  one  having  about  60 
rays.  These  organs  are  evidently  for  the  purpose  of 
creating  currents  of  water  directed  toward  the  mouth  and 
bearing  particles  of  food.  When  disturbed,  the  fans  are 

drawn  backward  and 
folded  up  like  an  ordi- 
nary fan.  Just  back 
of  the  head  on  the  ven- 

F'°-  '-  """       tral  side  of  the  body  is 

a  fleshy  proleg  termi- 
nating in  a  sucker  fringed  with  hooks  similar  to  the 
posterior  sucker  already  described.  By  means  of  the 
anterior  and  posterior  suckers  the  larva  is  able  to  walk 
with  a  looping  gait  similar  to  that  of  a  measuring  worm. 
Moreover,  the  larva  possesses  the  power  of  spinning 
silk  from  its  mouth.  This  is  undoubtedly  an  adaptation 
to  its  environment  or  the  situations  in  which  it  lives. 
When  a  larva  leaves  its  old  position  for  a  new  one,  it 
spins  out  a  silken  thread  from  its  mouth,  which  is  se- 
curely attached  at  the  free  end.  To  this  thread  the  larva 
tightly  clings  as  it  loops  along,  lest  it  be  washed  away 
by  the  swift  current  before  it  has  reached  its  destination 
and  becomes  fastened  to  the  rock  again  by  the  posterior 
sucker.  The  larva  breathes  by  means  of  three  much 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN 


343 


branched  tracheal  gills  pushed  out  between  the  last  two 
segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  length  of  the  larval  stage 
is  about  four  weeks  during  the  summer  months.  This 
stage  is  much  lengthened  by  cool  weather.  In  fact,  the 
insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  stage. 

In  order  to  live  and  flourish,  the  larvae  of  black-flies 
must  have  fresh,  flowing  water  full  of  tiny  plant  and  animal 
life.  As  soon  as  the  larvae 
are  taken  out  of  the  water 
or  even  placed  in  quiet 
standing  water,  they  die. 

When  the  larva  completes 
its  growth,  it  spins  a  boot- 
shaped  cocoon  which  is 
securely  attached  to  the 
rocks  by  the  sole  but  is  open 
at  the  top.  Within  the 
cocoon  the  larva  changes  to 
a  pupa  which  must  also  live 
in  fresh,  swiftly  moving 
water.  The  pupa  breathes 
by  means  of  two  tufts  of 
respiratory  filaments  borne 
on  the  thorax.  Each  tuft 
consists  of  nine  filaments, 
one  of  which  is  slightly 
shorter  than  any  of  the  other  eight  (Fig.  118).  The  pupal 
stage  lasts  about  three  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  period 
the  adult  fly  emerges  and  quickly  rises  to  the  surface 
inclosed  in  a  bubble  of  air.  There  seem  to  be  two  or 
three  generations  during  a  season  at  Ithaca,  New  York. 

The  life  histories  of  other  black-flies,  at  least  what  we 


FIG.  118.  — Pupa  of  a  black-fly 
(5.  pictipea).     (X  16.) 


344  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

know  of  them,  are  similar  in  general  to  the  one  just  de- 
scribed. So  far  as  we  know,  all  black-flies  must  have  water 
in  which  to  breed  and  apparently  the  water  has  to  be 
moving.  Some  species  of  black-flies  breed  in  small 
streams  and  some  of  them  in  larger  rivers.  Some  seem  to 
delight  in  swiftly  flowing  mountain  streams  and  brooks, 
while  others  occur  in  enormous  numbers  in  the  larger  and 
more  quiet  rivers.  Twenty-five  species  of  black-flies 
have  been  found  in  North  America  and  fifteen  of  these 
occur  in  the  United  States. 

Methods  of  control.  —  For  protection  from  black-flies, 
there  are  two  lines  of  procedure  to  follow  —  driving  them 
away  with  some  form  of  repellent  or  destroying  the  larvae 
and  pupae  in  the  streams  with  some  insecticide.  Campers, 
hunters,  woodsmen,  and  permanent  residents  use  repellents 
almost  entirely  to  drive  the  flies  away.  Evergreen 
branches  or  damp  moss  or  lichens  serve  very  well  on  a 
camp  fire.  These  materials  produce  a  thick  smudge  that 
drives  the  flies  away.  In  the  Adirondacks,  smudges  for 
the  home  are  built  very  largely  of  hardwood  chips,  beech 
perferably.  These  are  also  used  at  night  to  drive  away 
mosquitoes. 

Pyrethrum,  Persian  insect  powder,  or  buhach,  is  used 
to  drive  the  flies  out  of  houses  and  tents.  Lugger  says  it 
is  used  in  the  houses  and  stores  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany for  this  purpose.  A  little  of  the  powder  is  burned  on 
a  piece  of  bark  and  the  fumes  either  kill  or  stupefy  the 
tormenters.  Planters  in  the  South  collect  during  the 
year  all  sorts  of  materials  which  will  produce  a  dense 
stifling  smoke.  They  use  leather,  dried  dung,  and  old 
rags  and  clothing.  As  soon  as  the  gnats  appear,  the 
smudges  are  started  and  they  are  kept  up  until  the  insects 


SOME  ANNOYING  PESTS  OF  MAN  345 

disappear.  Smudges  are  located  in  the  fields,  to  protect 
the  working  teams,  and  in  towns  fires  are  kept  before  the 
doors  of  livery  barns. 

The  destruction  of  the  larvae  of  black-flies  in  streams 
may  be  accomplished  by  pouring  phinotas  oil  into  the 
water,  by  damming  the  smaller  streams,  and  by  sweeping 
the  larvse  from  the  rocks  in  swift  shallow  streams.  Phino- 
tas oil  was  first  used  by  Conradi  in  the  streams  of  northern 
New  Hampshire.  The  wasteway  of  a  dam  was  found  to 
contain  great  numbers  of  the  larvse,  covering  a  space 
approximately  5  feet  wide  by  20  feet  long.  One-half  of  a 
gallon  of  phinotas  oil  was  poured  into  the  water,  with  the 
effect  of  killing  all  of  the  larvse  and  abating  the  nuisance 
of  flies  at  the  near-by  summer  hotel.  In  later  experiments 
directed  by  Sanderson,  a  net  was  stretched  across  a  small 
stream  and  the  water  oiled  for  a  distance  of  100  yards 
above  the  net.  The  fish  descended  the  stream  ahead  of 
the  oil  and  were  caught  by  the  net,  where  they  were  held 
until  the  oil  had  passed  on.  Many  of  the  fish  were  over- 
come by  the  oil  at  first,  but  within  15  to  20  minutes  the 
water  cleared  up  and  all  of  them  revived  without  any 
apparent  ill  effects.  In  a  subsequent  experiment  where  no 
net  was  used  the  fish  were  subjected  to  the  effect  of  the  oil 
so  long  that  many  of  them  were  killed.  In  every  case  the 
larvse  of  the  black-flies  were  destroyed.  The  objection 
to  the  use  of  this  oil  is  its  effect  upon  fish.  It  would  prob- 
ably not  be  safe  to  use  it  in  streams  flowing  into  pri- 
vate ponds  or  lakes  stocked  with  fish,  at  least  not  in  the 
part  of  the  streams  close  to  the  ponds  or  lakes. 

When  the  larvse  are  found  in  restricted  areas  in  small 
shallow  streams,  it  is  often  possible  to  dam  the  water, 
thus  increasing  its  depth  and  drowning  the  larvse.  We 


346  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

have  already  pointed  out  that  the  larvae  cannot  live  in 
deep  quiet  water.  Conradi  also  found  that  he  could 
destroy  the  larvae  in  swift  shallow  streams  by  sweeping 
them  from  the  rocks  with  stiff  brooms.  He  says  that  miles 
of  such  breeding  grounds  can  be  swept  with  a  stable  broom 
in  a  day.  If  the  larvae  are  carried  into  deep  quiet  water, 
they  die,  but  if  into  other  shallow  places,  they  reattach 
themselves  and  go  on  developing. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  BLACK-FLIES 

1850.     AGASSIZ,   Louis.  —  Lake  Superior,   its  physical  character, 

vegetation,  and  animals,  pp.  34,  61. 
1887.     RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Buffalo  gnats.     Rept.   U.  S.  Comm.   Agri. 

for  the  year  1886,  pp.  492-517. 
1899.     HERRICK,  GLENN  W.  —  Some  insects  injurious  to  stock  and 

remedies  therefor.     Bull.  53,  Miss.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  1-8. 
1901.     NEEDHAM,  J.  G.,  and  BETTEN,  C. — Aquatic  insects  in  the 

Adirondacks.     Bull.  47,  N.  Y.  State  Mus.,  pp.  408,  574. 
1904.     WEED,    C.    M.  —  Experiments    in    destroying    black-flies. 

Bull.  112,  New  Hampshire  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  1-4. 

1904.  WEBSTER,   F.   M.  —  The   suppression   and  control   of  the 
plague  of  buffalo  gnats,  etc.     Proc.  25th  Ann.    Meet.    Soc. 
Promotion  Agri.  Sci.,  pp.  53-72. 

1905.  CONRADI,  A.  F.  —  Black-fly  studies.    Bull.  52,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.,  Bu.  Ent.,  pp.  100-101. 

1910.     SANDERSON,  E.  D.  —  Controlling  the  black-fly  in  the  White 

Mountains.     Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  3,  pp.  27-29. 
1910.     SAMBON,  L.  W.  —  Progress  report  on  the  investigation  of 

pellagra.     Jour.  Trop.  Med.  and  Hygiene,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  271- 

282,  287-300,  305-315,  319-321. 
1912.     GARMAN,  H.  —  A  preliminary  study  of  Kentucky  localities  in 

which  pellagra  is  prevalent,  etc.    Bull.  159,  Kentucky  Expt.  Stat. 
1912.     FORBES,  S.  A.  —  On  black-flies  and  buffalo  gnats  (Simulium) 

as  possible  carriers  of  pellagra  in  Illinois.     27th  Rept.  of  the 

State  Ent.  111.,  pp.  21-55. 
For  further  bibliography  see  the  foregoing  paper  by  Forbes. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  OF  THE 
HOUSEHOLD 

THERE  are  a  few  insects  and  related  animals  that  nor- 
mally live  out-of-doors  but  at  times  invade  the  house 
and  cause  annoyance  and  injury.  Two  of  the  mites, 
certain  scorpions,  and  the  house  centipede  are  among 
such  offenders.  White  ants  invade  the  house  and 
undermine  the  framework  of  buildings,  while  book-lice 
often  increase  in  enormous  numbers  and  the  spring-tails 
appear  in  unexpected  places. 

A   PREDACEOUS  MITE 

Pediculoides  ventricosus 

Webster  has  given  a  most  interesting  account  of  a  mite 
(P.  ventricosus}  that  has  proven  noxious  to  man.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  attacks  of  this  mite  have  been  diagnosed 
as  those  of  chiggers.  In  1908  and  1909,  threshermen, 
harvest  hands,  workers  in  potteries,  and  other  laborers 
who  handled  straw  in  Ohio  suffered  greatly  from  what 
was  supposed  to  be  chiggers.  In  the  light  of  present 
knowledge  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  most  of  these 
attacks  were  by  the  predaceous  mite  named  above,  and 
not  by  chiggers.  Webster's  researches  have  shown  that 
this  mite  is  parasitic  upon  the  wheat  joint  worm  and  upon 
347 


348  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

the  larvae  of  the  Angoumois  grain  moth,  a  pest  of  wheat. 
Moreover,  records  show  that  the  wheat  joint  worm  was 
especially  abundant  in  Ohio  during  the  years  1908  and 
1909.  Therefore,  all  people  handling  straw  in  Ohio,  at 
least,  were  probably  attacked  by  these  mites,  which  were 
present  in  the  straw  probably,  for  the  most  part,  as  para- 
sites on  the  wheat  joint  worm. 

Several  very  interesting  cases  of  injury  by  this  mite  to 
people  who  slept  on  straw  mattresses  have  been  reported 
by  Goldberger  and  Schamberg.  An  outbreak  of  dermati- 
tis took  place  in  1909  among  some  sailors  on  a  private 
yacht  anchored  in  the  Delaware  River  in  Philadelphia. 
An  investigation  of  these  cases,  by  the  two  physicians, 
showed  that  the  straw  in  the  mattresses  on  which  the 
sailors  slept  was  infested  by  myriads  of  this  predaceous 
mite.  Experiments  made  with  the  mites  on  other  individ- 
uals soon  demonstrated  that  the  mites  in  the  straw  caused 
the  skin  eruptions  on  the  bodies  of  the  sailors.  Other 
sailors  in  other  boats  plying  along  the  river  were  reported 
about  the  same  time  as  suffering  from  the  same  trouble. 
It  was  soon  shown  that  these  men  also  were  sleeping 
on  new  straw  mattresses.  Other  cases  occurred  in 
Philadelphia,  practically  every  one  of  which  was  traced 
to  a  new  straw  mattress.  The  straw  used  in  these  mat- 
tresses was  eventually  traced  through  the  manufacturers 
as  having  come  from  New  Jersey  and  Indiana.  The 
straw  from  New  Jersey  was  infested  with  the  mites,  which 
were  probably  parasitic  upon  the  larvae  of  the  Angoumois 
grain  moth  which  was  abundant  on  wheat  in  New  Jersey 
that  season.  The  straw  from  Indiana  was  probably 
infested  with  the  joint  worm,  which  accounts  for  the 
presence  of  the  mites  in  those  mattresses. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME   INVADERS 


349 


The  whole  series  of  investigations  by  Webster  and  his 
associates  and  by  the  physicians  Schamberg  and  Gold- 
berger  afford  a  most  interesting  illustration  of  the  often- 
times intimate  interrelationships  of  animals  and  plants 
and  the  incidental  effect  upon  man. 

Nature  of  the  injury.  —  The  presence  of  the  mites  on 
the  human  skin  causes  a  severe  eruption  or  dermatitis. 
The  eruption  is  liable  to  cover 
the  neck,  chest,  back,  arms, 
and  legs.  It  consists  of  wheals 
or  inflamed  spots  from  the 
size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  the 
finger  nail.  In  severe  cases 
there  may  be  thousands  of 
these  wheals  on  the  body. 
The  spots  are  round,  oval,  or 
irregular  in  shape,  and  of  a 
rose  color. 

Itching  is  one  of  the  first 
symptoms  of  the  trouble  and 
is  especially  intense  at  night. 
In  some  cases  the  temperature 
rises,  while  in  other  cases 
headache,  nausea,  and  a  mild 
form  of  diarrhea  may  develop. 
Occasionally  patients  complain  of  pains  in  the  joints 
and  in  the  back.  Ordinarily  the  itching  subsides  in  12 
to  36  hours,  although  it  may  continue  for  weeks  if  the 
mattress  is  continually  used. 

Life  history  and  habits  of  the  mite.  —  The  adult  female 
mites  are  so  small  as  to  be  almost  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye.  The  body  is  elongated  and  furnished  with  four  pairs 


FIG.  119.  —  The  female  mite, 
much  enlarged. 


350 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


of  legs  (Fig.  119).  In  this  stage  the  mites  are  active  and 
readily  crawl  about  in  search  of  something  to  devour. 
They  are  predaceous,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  and 
live  upon  the  larvae  of  the  wheat  joint  worm,  Angoumois 
grain  moth,  wasps,  and  other  insects.  When  a  female 
mite  finds  a  larva,  it  punctures  the  skin  and  begins  to  suck 
the  juices.  In  a  day  or  two  the  posterior  segments  of  the 
abdomen  begin  to  enlarge  and  continue  to  do  so  until 
they  become  fifteen  or  twenty 
times  as  large  as  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body.  In  this 
condition  the  females  do  not 
move  (Fig.  120). 

Within  the  enlarged  ab- 
domen, the  eggs  are  continu- 
ally forming  and  developing 
the  young  mites.  The  young 
mites  do  not  leave  the  body  of 
the  mother,  but  pass  through 
all  of  their  changes  and  actu- 
ally become  mature  before  they 
pass  out  of  the  body.  The 
females  are  prolific.  The 

number  of  young  produced  by  a  single  female  varies  from 
a  few  to  nearly  300. 

Methods  of  control.  —  In  households,  the  remedy  is 
perfectly  obvious.  Since  the  mites  are  found  in  straw 
contained  in  mattresses,  ticks,  or  in  straw  placed  beneath 
carpets,  they  can  be  exterminated  by  removing  the  mat- 
tresses, ticks,  and  straw.  The  mattresses  could  be  placed 
in  storage  in  some  outbuilding  and  if  left  there  long  enough 
would  finally  become  free  of  the  mites,  for  the  latter  would 


FIG.  120.  —  T 


ale    mite 


when  full  of  eggs,  enlarged. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS 


351 


eventually  die  for  want  of  food.  The  mattresses  could 
probably  be  fumigated  with  sulfur  or  subjected  to  steam 
to  kill  the  mites. 

Webster  found  that,  in  case  of  the  infestation  of  straw 
in  the  East  where  the  grain  moth  was  present,  if  the  wheat 
was  threshed  direct  from  the 
shock,  there  would  be  almost 
no  occurrence  of  the  grain 
moth,  and  consequently  no 
mites. 

In  Ohio,  Indiana,  or  Illinois, 
where  straw  is  infested  with 
the  wheat  joint  worm,  the 
problem  is  a  little  different. 
In  those  states  wheat  follow- 
ing wheat  is  more  apt  to  be 
infested  with  the  joint  worm. 
Likewise,  wheat  grown  on 
poor  soil  and  early  sown 
wheat  seem  to  be  worse  in- 
fested. To  escape  the  joint 
worm,  then,  wheat  should  be  sown  moderately  late,  on 
good  soil  and  on  land  not  devoted  to  wheat  the  previous 
year.  Since  the  joint  worm  winters  over  in  the  stubble, 
this  should  be  burned,  if  possible,  during  the  fall,  winter, 
or  spring.  Any  measure  lessening  the  joint  worm  will 
lessen  the  chances  of  infestation  by  mites  (Fig.  121).  It 
would  be  wise,  when  obtaining  straw  for  beds,  to  deter- 
mine if  possible,  whether  the  joint  worm  was  present  in 
the  field  in  which  the  wheat  was  grown.  As  a  further 
safeguard,  oat  straw  would  be  preferable  to  wheat  straw 
whenever  it  could  be  obtained. 


Fio.  121.  —  The  male  mite, 
enlarged. 


352  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THIS  MITE 

1883.     WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  The  Angoumois  grain  moth.     12th  Kept, 

State  Ent.  111.,  pp.  150-151. 
1901.     SCHAMBERG,  J.  F.  — An  epidemic  of  a  peculiar  and  unfamiliar 

disease  of  the  skin.     Phil.  Med.  Jour,  for  July  6,  p.  5. 

1909.  GOLDBERGER,  J.,  and  SCHAAIBERG,  J.  F.  —  Epidemic  of  an 
urticarioid  dermatitis  due  to  a  small    mite  (Pediculoides  ven- 
tricosus)  in  the  straw  of  mattresses.     U.  S.  Public  Health  Re- 
ports, Vol.  24,  No.  28,  pp.  973-975. 

1910.  WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  A  predaceous  mite  proves  noxious  to 
man.     Circ.  118,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-24. 


THE   CLOVER  MITE 

Bryobia  pratensis 

This  pest  is  a  true  mite  and  is  more  closely  related  to 
the  spiders  than  to  insects.  It  is  found  on  a  number  of 
plants,  especially  clover,  alfalfa,  certain  forest  and  shade 
trees,  and  on  fruit  trees.  We  have  seen  large  areas  of 
alfalfa  in  Texas  literally  covered  with  the  eggs,  young,  and 
adults  of  this  pest.  It  is  rather  partial  to  red  clover  and 
sometimes  causes  serious  injury  to  this  crop.  During 
the  season  of  1909  a  good  many  inquiries  were  made 
regarding  great  quantities  of  small  reddish  eggs  found  on 
the  branches  of  fruit  trees.  These  were  the  eggs  of  the 
clover  mite.  It  is  a  serious  pest  to  fruit  trees  along  the 
Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  higher  portions  of  Colorado  and 
other  Western  states .  The  foliage  of  affected  trees  becomes 
pale  and  sickly  in  appearance,  and  the  egg-shells  and  cast 
skins  of  the  mites  are  often  so  numerous  on  the  branches 
that  the  latter  present  a  scurfy  appearance.  Moreover, 
it  often  attacks  deciduous  trees  like  the  poplar,  elm,  and 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS 


353 


black  walnut.  But  the  feature  with  which  we  are  chiefly 
concerned  here  is  its  role  as  a  household  pest.  During 
the  past  season  a  correspondent,  inclosing  many  specimens 
of  the  clover  mite,  said  that  they  were  crawling  up  the 
sides  of  her  house  in  immense  numbers  and  entering  the 
rooms,  to  her  very  great  an- 
noyance. There  are  many 
instances  of  these  household 
invasions  on  record.  So  far 
as  we  are  aware,  the  mites  do 
not  injure  household  goods, 
clothing,  or  books,  but  when 
the  walls,  furniture,  and  bric- 
a-brac,  become  covered  with 
myriads  of  these  reddish 
mites,  the  annoyance  is  un- 
bearable and  something  must 
be  done.  A  correspondent 
from  Ohio  wrote  to  Insect 
Life  describing  an  invasion 
of  the  mites  and  added  that, 
in  the  spring,  the  grass  was 
nearly  covered  with  them 
close  to  the  house.  This  will  often  be  found  to  be  the 
case  and  this  habit  of  the  pest  of  living  on  grass  near  a 
dwelling  explains  its  invasion  of  houses  and,  at  the 
same  time,  offers  a  chance  of  destroying  it  before  it 
enters  the  house. 

Nature  of  the  pest.  —  This  mite  is  related  to  the  com- 
mon red  spider  that  attacks  house  plants  and  plants  in 
greenhouses,  but  it  is  about  twice  as  large  as  the  red 
spider  (Fig.  122).  It  is  reddish-brown  in  color,  about 


FIG.  122.  —  The  clover  mite, 
adult,  enlarged. 


354 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


three-tenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  has  a  very  long  pair  of 
front  legs,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Its  mouth  parts 
are  formed  for  sucking  and  the  body  is  oval  and  apparently 
all  of  one  piece. 

Its  life  history  and  habits.  —  In  the  higher  altitudes 
and  in  its  more  northern  range,  this  mite  passes  the  winter 
largely  in  the  egg  state.  The  eggs  may  be  found  on  the 
bark  of  shade  trees,  in  the  crotches  and  on  the  branches 
of  fruit  trees,  often  in  great 
numbers.  We  often  receive 
branches  of  pear  trees  thickly 
coated  with  the  eggs  of  this 
pest. 

In  the  warmer  regions  of 
its  range  it  is  said  to  pass  the 
winter  more  often,  at  least 
in  the  adult  state,  seeking 
hibernation  quarters  where- 
ever  they  may  be  found. 

It  is  owing  to  its  habit  of 
FIG.  123.-^^  clover  mite,  seeking  some  place  for  shelter 
that  it  enters  dwelling-houses 

in  the  fall  of  the  year,  sometimes  in  great  numbers  and 
thus  becomes  a  veritable  pest.  This  is  especially  apt  to 
occur  in  the  states  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  there  are 
records  of  its  happening  in  other  states.  It  occasionally 
occurs  as  a  pest  (Fig.  123)  to  clover  and  certain  grasses 
near  a  dwelling-house,  even  on  the  lawn ;  and,  in  this 
case,  it  will  be  very  apt  to  enter  the  house  in  the  autumn 
after  it  quits  feeding  and  begins  to  seek  winter  quarters. 
Methods  of  control.  —  Screens  at  windows  are  not  much 
protection,  because  the  mites  can  readily  crawl  through 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  355 

the  meshes.  If  the  mites  are  discovered  in  time,  as  they 
are  crawling  up  the  sides  of  the  house,  they  may  be  checked 
by  spraying  the  walls  with  kerosene  oil.  It  will  take 
thorough,  vigorous  action  to  check  them. 

After  they  have  once  entered  a  house,  spraying  them 
wherever  possible  with  benzine  will  kill  all  it  hits.  The 
rooms  may  be  fumigated  with  sulfur,  at  least  2  pounds 
to  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  space,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  fumes  may  injure  nickel  and  brass  fittings,  gilt 
picture  frames,  and  wall  paper.  Fresh  buhach  sprinkled 
liberally  about  the  room  and  actually  on  the  mites  when- 
ever possible  will  kill  many  of  them. 

If  the  mites  are  discovered  on  the  lawn,  near  the  house, 
they  should  be  killed  by  spraying  the  grass  with  a  10 
or  12  per  cent  solution  of  kerosene  emulsion. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE 
CLOVER  MITE 

1881.     LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Mites  in  clothing.     Country  Gentleman, 

June  9,  1881,  XLVI,  p.  376. 
1889.     WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  Notes  on  species  of  Bryobia  infesting 

dwellings.     Bull.  25,  Ind.  Expt.  Stat.,  p.  15. 
1889.     RiLEY-HowARD.  —  Late  autumnal  occurrence  of  mites  in 

great  numbers.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  252. 

1889.  WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  Notes  on  a  species  of  Bryobia  infesting 
dwellings.    Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  277. 

1890.  RILEY-HOWARD.  —  Abundance  of  Bryobia  pratensis.     Insect 
Life,  Vol.  2,  p.  278. 

1890.     LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Bryobia    pratensis   infesting  a    dwelling- 
house.    Sixth  Rept.,  Ins.  N.  Y.,  p.  158. 

1890.  RILEY-MARLATT.  —  The    clover    mite    (Bryobia  pratensis). 
Insect  Life,  Vol.  3,  p.  45. 

1891.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Bryobia  pratensis,  Dist.  food  plants,  etc. 
Seventh  Rept.,  Ins.  N.  Y.,  pp.  321-324. 


356  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

1896.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  clover  mite.    Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  51. 

1897.     The  clover  mite.    Circ.  19,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  Dept.  Agri. 

1908.    SWENK,  MYRON  H.  —  The  field  or  clover  mite.    Report  of 

the  Entomologist  of  Nebraska  for  1908,  p.  305. 


THE   HOUSE   CENTIPEDE 

Scutigera  forceps 

The  house  centipede  occurs  commonly  in  public  build- 
ings, and  frequently  in  dwelling-houses  in  the  warmer 
moist  regions  of  the  Gulf  states.  It  was  a  frequent  visitor 
in  the  classrooms  and  laboratories  of  the  author,  which 
were  situated  in  the  basement  of  a  large  brick  building. 
It  is,  however,  not  confined  to  the  southern  tier  of  states, 
but  has  slowly  enlarged  its  territory  and  gradually  spread 
northward  and  westward  until  it  is  now  found  as  far 
north  as  New  York  and  the  New  England  states  and  has 
crossed  the  Mississippi  on  its  way  to  the  Rockies. 

Its  habits  and  appearance.  —  The  house  centipede  is 
referred  by  most  authors  to  that  group  of  animals  known 
as  the  Myriapoda  (many-footed).  Later  writers  tend 
to  place  it  in  a  distinct  and  separate  class,  Chilopoda. 
The  near  relatives  of  the  house  centipede  are  found  out- 
of-doors,  mainly  in  the  woods  and  fields.  They  are  shy 
creatures,  hiding  away  during  the  day  beneath  logs,  stones, 
and  leaves. 

The  house  centipede  prefers  warm,  moist  situations  in 
basements,  greenhouses,  bathrooms,  and  pantries,  and 
preferably  remains  hidden  during  the  daytime,  although 
I  have  occasionally  seen  them  crawling  up  walls  and  along 
floors  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  When  seen  scudding 


SOME  TROUBLESOME  INVADERS 


357 


across  the  floor,  it  is  usually  the  result  of  having  been 
disturbed  in  its  hiding  place  behind  furniture  or  other 
objects  with  a  consequent  hurried  and  rather  blundering 
attempt  to  find  another  nook  in  which  to  ensconce  itself. 
It  may  run  rapidly  for  a  little  ways,  then  stop  suddenly 
and  remain  motionless  for  a 
few  moments,  again  quickly 
resuming  its  rapid  run  across 
the  floor.  In  these  apparently 
rather  aimless  bursts  of  speed 
it  has  the  somewhat  disconcert- 
ing habit  of  often  heading 
straight  for  the  observer,  much 
to  the  consternation  of  the 
latter,  especially  if  it  be  a 
woman  or  child. 

This  centipede  has  a  narrow, 
slender  body  about  one  inch  in 
length  in  some  specimens  and 
slightly  more  than  that  in 
others.  The  body  is  greenish- 
yellow  in  color  and  the  back  is 
marked  with  three  dark  longi- 
tudinal stripes.  From  the  head 
there  extend  two  long,  thread- 
like antenna?  and  along  each 

side  of  the  body  are  fifteen  long,  slender  legs,  thus 
making  fifteen  pairs  of  appendages  with  which  to  move 
about  (Fig.  124).  Small  wonder  that  it  can  move  with 
considerable  celerity  and  rapidity.  The  last  or  hind 
pair  of  legs  is  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  others  and  ex- 
tends backward  much  as  the  antennae  extend  forward. 


FIG.  124.  — The  house 
centipede.     (XI.) 


358  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  animal  is  a  very  delicate  one  and  so  easily  crushed 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  catch  one  alive  and  whole. 
When  it  is  crushed  or  killed,  the  legs  invariably  curl  into 
a  tangled  mass  resembling  a  bunch  of  snarled  threads. 
Hence  has  originated  its  common  name,  "  skein  centipede." 
A  correspondent  of  Insect  Life  gives  a  very  clear  descrip- 
tion of  this  animal,  emphasizing  the  skein  effect.  She 
says  :  "  The  first  I  ever  saw  was  five  inches  long,  at  least. 
I  thought  it  was  a  skein  of  brown  silk  in  a  tangle,  and 
picked  it  up  from  the  carpet  with  my  thumb  and  finger. 
I  have  never  seen  another  as  large,  but  the  wet  weather 
brings  them  into  the  bathroom  in  two  sorts,  one  as  I  have 
described  it,  brown  and  tangled,  the  other  of  the  same 
general  shape,  but  with  distinct  antennae  at  one  end  and 
something  similar  at  the  other,  black  and  smoky  in  color." 

This  animal  grows  by  shedding  its  skin  from  time  to 
time,  in  a  manner  similar  to  insects.  These  cast  skins 
have  the  legs  greatly  entangled,  with  the  whole  rolled  up 
very  much  resembling  a  tangle  of  strings.  The  corre- 
spondent evidently  picked  up  one  of  these  cast  skins. 
The  other  form  of  which  she  speaks  was  the  living  animal. 

Its  mouth  parts  and  food.  —  Its  mouth  parts  are  formed 
for  biting  and  consequently  it  is  fitted  for  preying  upon 
other  animals.  Its  food  probably  consists  chiefly  of 
insects,  for  it  has  repeatedly  been  seen  to  catch  and  kill 
cockroaches,  and  has  also  been  observed  to  catch  and 
kill  house-flies,  small  moths,  and  other  insects.  It  is 
also  supposed  to  feed  upon  the  bedbug. 

It  has  been  difficult  to  keep  this  centipede  in  captivity 
where  its  feeding  habits  might  be  observed.  When  con- 
fined, it  soon  dies.  Miss  Marshall,  however,  of  Albany, 
New  York,  succeeded  in  keeping  a  house  centipede  in  an 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  359 

ordinary  drinking  cup  with  muslin  tied  over  the  top  for 
more  than  three  months  by  supplying  it  daily  with  three 
or  four  drops  of  water.  She  gave  it  occasionally  small 
flies  and  young  croton-bugs,  which  it  ate.  Evidently 
a  small  supply  of  water  is  absolutely  necessary  to  sustain 
its  life. 

Hargitt  succeeded  in  keeping  them  alive  several  days  and 
inducing  them  to  eat  croton-bugs  and  house-flies.  Miss 
Murtfeldt  found  one  of  them  in  her  house  that  had  cap- 
tured a  small  white  moth  and  had  eaten  quite  a  hole  in  the 
side  of  the  thorax  of  its  victim.  She  describes  the  legs 
of  the  centipede  as  moving  so  swiftly  during  the  struggle 
with  its  prey  that  they  were  indistinguishable  and  ap- 
peared like  the  spokes  in  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel. 
Because  of  its  habits  of  preying  upon  insects,  this  centipede 
is  not  regarded  as  a  wholly  unwelcome  guest  in  houses. 
Unhappily  it  has  obtained  an  unsavory  reputation  because 
it  evidently  does,  under  provocation,  occasionally  bite 
human  beings  and  seems  to  inject  a  poison  into  the  wound 
that,  in  some  persons,  causes  considerable  painful  irritation. 

Lintner  relates  the  case  of  a  man's  being  bitten  in  two 
places  on  the  body  by  this  centipede.  The  animal  had 
hidden  between  the  sheets  of  the  bed  and  during  the  night 
the  sleeper  felt  the  pain  and  getting  up  found  the  centi- 
pede. "The  flesh  around  the  bites  became  much  in- 
flamed and  swollen  but  did  not  fester."  He  also  records 
another  case  of  a  woman's  having  stepped  on  a  centipede 
with  her  bare  foot  in  the  dark.  The  sensation  was  much 
like  that  of  stepping  on  a  tack.  The  foot  became  swollen 
but  yielded  to  a  treatment  of  ammonia  and  camphor. 
From  what  evidence  we  have  it  would  seem  that  the  bite 
of  this  centipede  is  not  highly  venomous.  It  undoubtedly 


360  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

will  vary  in  its  seriousness,  according  to  the  susceptibility 
of  the  person  bitten.  Some  people  will  suffer  much  more 
than  others,  just  as  in  the  case  of  bee  stings.  It  is  doubtful 
if  this  centipede  will  deliberately  attack  a  human  being. 
When  stepped  upon  or  cornered  in  a  bed,  it  may  bite  in 
self-defense.  The  writer,  during  his  many  years'  residence 
in  the  South,  never  knew  of  a  person's  being  bitten. 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  almost  nothing  is  known  of 
its  life  history.  Half-grown  specimens  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  summer  and  a  very  .young  specimen  found 
by  H.  G.  Hubbard  beneath  a  moist  piece  of  log  differed 
from  mature  forms  chiefly  in  the  possession  of  fewer  legs. 
Where  its  eggs  are  laid,  how  they  look,  and  how  long  the 
young  take  to  become  adults  are  questions  unanswered  as 
yet. 

Methods  of  control.  —  It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is 
so  strong  a  repugnance  toward  this  animal.  Its  appear- 
ance is  wholly  against  it,  for  it  is  undoubtedly  of  con- 
siderable benefit  in  a  house  from  its  habits  of  catching 
and  killing  insect  pests. 

If  one  desires  to  get  rid  of  the  centipedes,  every  one  of 
them  seen  should  be  killed.  All  possible  objects  that 
afford  protection  or  hiding  places  for  them  in  moist  rooms 
should  be  removed.  A  liberal  use  of  fresh  buhach  powder 
about  their  haunts  will  usually  be  fairly  effective. 

SCORPIONS 

In  the  Southwest,  especially  in  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  and  also  in  Southern  California,  scorpions  are 
often  found  in  outhouses,  barns,  and  dwellings.  They 
are  frequent  among  boxes  and  lumber  piled  up  in  storage 


SOME   TROUBLESOME   INVADERS 


361 


rooms,  in  closets,  and  other  hiding  places.    The  species 

familiar  to  the  writer  and  seen  so  much  in  Texas  is  a  small 

one  usually  about  2^  inches  in  length.    The  body,  like 

the  bodies  of  all  scorpions,  is  divided  into  two  portions, 

a  rather  large  anterior  portion,  consisting  of  the  head, 

thorax,  and  front  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  a  long  slender 

portion,    usually    denominated    the 

"tail,"    which    is    really    the    five 

posterior  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

The  "tail"  is  armed  at  the  end  with 

a  sting.    Within  the  sting  is  a  poison 

gland  that  opens  through  a  duct  just 

behind  the  tip  of   the  sharp  spine 

with    which    the    sting    terminates. 

On  the  thorax  are  four  pairs  of  long 

legs  and  a  large  pair  of  long  pincer- 

like  organs  resembling  those  of  the 

cray-fish  and  lobster  (Fig.  125). 

The  scorpions  are  nocturnal  ani- 
mals, for  they  remain  quietly  hidden 
during  the  day,  coming  out  at  night 
for  their  principal  activities.    They 
have  the  curious  habit  of  carrying  the,  tail-like  portion 
of    the    abdomen    bent   upwards  over  the   back.      The 
scorpions  feed  upon  spiders  and  insects,  which  they  seize 
with  their  pincer-like  organs. 

The  sting  of  the  scorpion.  —  The  sting  of  the  scorpion 
is  primarily  a  weapon  for  paralyzing  its  prey,  although 
it  is  used  when  needed  as  a  weapon  of  defense.  It  has 
been  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  they  never  sting 
unless  disturbed,  but  under  provocation  they  can  sting 
quite  effectively. 


FIG.  125.  —  A  scorpion. 
(X  J.) 


362  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

While  closing  a  window  shutter  in  the  dark,  the  author 
was  stung  severely  by  one  of  these  scorpions,  as  was  deter- 
mined by  actually  finding  the  animal  there  when  search 
was  made  in  the  light.  The  pain  was  more  severe  than 
that  of  a  bee  or  wasp,  but  there  was  only  a  slight  swelling 
of  the  finger.  So  far  as  that  is  concerned,  however,  the 
sting  of  a  bee  or  wasp  hardly  ever  causes  the  writer  much 
pain  or  produces  much  irritation.  The  stings  of  these 
animals  are  quite  frequently  inflicted  on  children  while 
the  latter  are  at  play  and  often  cause  a  good  deal  of 
pain  and  irritation.  The  author  recalls  an  instance  in 
which  a  scorpion  had  hidden  during  the  day  in  a  child's 
night  clothing  hanging  in  a  closet.  When  the  child  was 
undressed  at  night  and  clothed  with  the  gown,  it  was 
severely  stung  and  suffered  acute  pain,  evidently  being 
very  susceptible  to  the  poison.  Because  of  these  habits, 
the  scorpions  are  considered  somewhat  of  a  nuisance  and 
become  the  source  of  considerable  worry  and  annoyance. 

It  is  said  that  the  larger  species  of  scorpions  found  in 
the  tropics  are  very  poisonous.  The  reports  that  these 
animals  kill  their  young  and  when  closely  cornered  kill 
themselves  with  their  own  stings  can  hardly  be  considered 
anything  more  than  fables. 

Castellani  and  Chalmers  say,  in  discussing  the  effects 
of  the  venom  and  bites  of  scorpions  on  man,  that  "the 
symptoms  depend  upon  the  size  and  nature  of  the  scorpion. 
Thus,  the  sting  of  the  small  (3^  centimeters)  Euscorpius 
europceus  causes  only  pain,  redness,  and  local  swelling, 
whereas  the  larger  tropical  scorpions  cause  very  intense 
pain  of  a  burning  character  radiating  from  the  skin, 
associated  often  with  violent  convulsions,  mental  dis- 
turbance, and  hallucinations,  profuse  perspiration  and 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  363 

secretion  of  saliva,  and  perhaps  vomiting."  They  say 
that  death  may  ensue  from  a  stoppage  of  the  respiration, 
which,  however,  is  more  liable  to  take  place  in  the  case 
of  children  than  that  of  adults. 

Control  of  the  pest.  —  Very  little  can  be  said  regarding 
the  control  of  these  pests.  About  all  one  can  do  is  to  kill 
them  whenever  seen  and  exercise  all  possible  care  to  avoid 
them.  If  one  does  get  stung,  an  application  of  ammonia 
and  camphor  ordinarily  gives  relief.  An  application  of 
alcohol,  witch  hazel,  or  moistened  baking  soda  will  often 
allay  the  irritation  and  give  temporary  relief  until  a 
physician  can  be  called.  If  the  individual  poisoned  is 
particularly  susceptible,  it  may  become  necessary  to  send 
for  the  family  physician. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  HOUSE 
CENTIPEDE 

1888.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Cermatia  forceps.     Fourth   Rept.  N.Y. 
Ins.,  pp.  128-134. 

1889.    Food   of   Cermatia  forceps.     Fifth   Rept.   N.Y.  Ins., 

p.  295. 

1890.  WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  Entomological  news,  Vol.  1,  p.  167. 
1890.     HARGITT,  C.  W.  —  Cermatia  forceps.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  3, 

p.  85. 

1890.  RILEY-HOWARD.  —  Insect  life,  Vol.  2,  p.  316. 

1891.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  A  household  centipede.     Seventh  Rept. 
N.  Y.  Ins.,  pp.  324-327. 

1894.     MURTFELDT,  MARY  E.  —  Scutigera  forceps  and  Callimorpha. 

Insect  Life,  Vol.  6,  p.  258. 
1896.    MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  house  centipede.    Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.f 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  47-50. 
1910.    CASTELLANI,  A.,  and  CHALMERS,  A.  J.  —  The  venom  of 

scorpions.     Manual  of  Tropical  Medicine,  pp.  134-136. 
For  further  references  see  Lintner's  Reports. 


364  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


TERMITES   OR  WHITE  ANTS 

Termes  flampes  et  al. 

The  so-called  "white  ants"  are  not  ants  and  are  not 
even  closely  related  to  the  true  ants.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  are  much  nearer  relatives  of  the  cockroaches  and 
earwigs  than  of  the  true  ants.  In  the  South,  they  are 
widely  known  as  wood  lice  because  they  are  always  found 
burrowing  in  pieces  of  wood.  The  termites  resemble  the 
true  ants,  however,  in  certain  notable  habits.  Like  the 
ants,  they  are  social  and  live  in  colonies.  Moreover, 
there  are  several  kinds  of  individuals  composing  the  colony, 
much  as  one  will  find  in  a  colony  of  true  ants.  It  is  for 
these  reasons  that  they  have  been  called  ants.  More- 
over, they  are  light  colored  or  dirty-white,  hence  the  com- 
mon appellation,  "white  ants."  The  termites  become 
decidedly  injurious  at  times  to  books  and  buildings,  as  we 
shall  see. 

Distribution  and  habits.  —  These  insects  are  widely 
distributed  over  the  world.  They  are  found  everywhere 
in  the  United  States,  but  are  apt  to  become  more  of  a  pest 
in  the  warmer  Southern  states  than  farther  north.  In 
fact,  it  is  in  the  tropics  that  termites  are  really  found  in 
all  their  fullness  of  life  and  development.  Drummond's 
account  of  the  termites  and  their  habits  in  Central  Africa- 
is  a  marvelous  story  of  insect  life.  Our  own  Brazilian 
species  of  termites  seem  to  be  quite  as  interesting  as  the 
African  ones,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  scattered  accounts 
that  we  have.  In  the  tropics,  these  insects  construct  huge 
mound  nests  (Plate  VI)  twelve  feet  or  more  in  height  and 
build  covered  ways  up  the  trunks  of  trees  and  from  one 


PLATE   VI 


Book  injured  by  termites,  above ;  nest  of  termites,  below. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS 


365 


place  to  another,  for  the  workers  of  most  species  are  blind 
or  possess  imperfect  vision  and  do  not  travel  in  the  light. 

Our  species  in  the  United  States  live  in  old  logs,  dead 
or  decaying  wood,  in  sills  of  buildings,  or  in  the  ground 
under  stones.     They  do  not  build  mound-like  nests  or 
covered    ways    along    tree-trunks    and 
consequently  are  not  particularly  con- 
spicuous insects  here. 

The  common  white  ant  (Termes 
flaxipes)  is  found  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  and  from  Canada  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  also  been 
carried  to  Europe,  where  it  is  a  serious 
pest  to  books  and  buildings. 

A  community  and  its  members.  — 
Like  the  true  ants,  honey  bees,  hornets, 
and  others,  the  termites  live  in  com- 
munities or  colonies  and  each  com- 
munity may  be  very  large  or  quite 
small  as  circumstances  determine. 
Several  kinds  of  individuals,  or  castes, 
as  they  are  often  called,  exist  in  each 
colony.  In  a  typical  colony  of  a 
typical  species,  for  example,  an  African 
species,  there  is  a  queen  grown  to  enormous  size,  some- 
times six  or  seven  inches  long,  perfectly  helpless  and 
with  no  other  business  than  to  lay  eggs  (Fig.  126).  She 
is  fed  and  cared  for  by  the  workers.  It  should  be  said 
that  no  true  queen  has  ever  been  found  in  the  colonies 
of  our  common  white  ant  (Termes  flavipes).  In  addi- 
tion to  the  queen  there  is  the  king,  or  male,  the 
workers,  which  are  wingless,  usually  blind,  and  always 


FIG.  126.  —  A  queen 
termite.     (X  1.) 


366 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


very  numerous,  the  soldiers,  which  have  large  heads 
and  strong  jaws,  and  finally,  at  certain  times  of  the 
year,  great  numbers  of  winged  males  and  females. 
The  workers  and  soldiers  are  undeveloped  individuals 
of  both  sexes  and,  in  this  respect, 
differ  from  true  ants,  in  which  the 
workers  are  undeveloped  females. 
The  workers  perform  all  the  labor 
of  the  colony,  assisted  somewhat 
by  the  soldiers,  care  for  the  queen, 
secure  food,  care  for  the  young, 
and  build  the  nests.  The  soldiers 
(Fig.  127)  are  the  defenders  of  the 
colony. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year, 
enormous  numbers  of  the  chest- 
nut-brown to  blackish  winged 
males  (Fig.  128)  and  females 
emerge  from  the  colonies  and 
begin  their  flight.  The  wings  of 
these  individuals  are  long  and 
shining  and  very  pale  brown  in 
color.  The  individuals  in  these 
swarming  flights  are  so  abundant 
that  they  can  often  be  swept  up 
by  the  quart,  and  because  of  such  great  numbers  these 
insects  have  become  objects  of  rather  wide  popular  ac- 
quaintance. After  the  flight,  a  pair  may  settle  on  a  decay- 
ing log  or  stump,  break  off  their  wings,  at  a  breaking  joint 
close  to  the  body,  and  start  a  new  colony.  This,  at  least, 
is  thought  to  be  the  manner  in  which  a  new  colony  of 
Termes  flampes  is  founded,  but  very  little  absolutely 


FIG.  127.  —  A  soldier  ter- 
mite.    (X  13.) 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS 


367 


definite  is  known  about  it.  Probably  the  usual  way  of 
founding  new  colonies  is  by  the  division  of  old  ones  by 
the  transportation  in  a  log  or  piece  of  wood  of  a  part  of 
a  colony. 

Food  and  injuries.  —  The  food  of  white  ants  consists, 
usually,  of  dead  or  decaying  wood  or  other  vegetable 
matter.  They  usually,  at  least  our  native  species,  select 
moist  wood  or  books  or  papers  stored  in  moist  situations. 


FIG.  128.  —  Winged  male  termite,  enlarged. 

Their  food  seems  to  consist  of  what  they  are  able  to  extract 
from  the  finely  divided  materials  formed  in  excavating 
their  tunnels.  Moreover,  they  consume  the  cast  skins 
of  the  developing  members  and  even  devour  certain  super- 
fluous individuals  of  the  colony.  Unfortunately,  white 
ants  do  not  always  confine  themselves  to  dead  or  decaying 
wood. 

These  insects  were  first  brought  forcibly  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  author  by  their  destruction  of  seedling  pecan 
trees  in  the  nursery  row  in  Mississippi.  The  particular 


368 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


nursery  in  which  the  injury  occurred  had  been  lately  estab- 
lished on  virgin  sandy  soil  filled  with  dead  pine  stumps 
and  their  decaying  roots.  It  became  quite  evident  during 
our  investigations,  that  these  termites  had  deserted  their 
normal  food  supply  and  had  transferred  their  attention 
to  the  diminutive  pecans  by  mining  out  the  very  hearts 
of  them.  We  have  records,  also,  of  serious  injury  to  the 
crowns  and  roots  of  orange  trees  in 
Florida  and  to  pecan,  chestnut,  and 
walnut  trees  in  Georgia.  In  Boston, 
some  valuable  trees  were  so  injured 
by  termites  that  they  had  to  be  cut 
down  and  destroyed.  In  greenhouses, 
termites  sometimes  injure  cuttings, 
potted  plants,  and  plants  with  her- 
baceous stems,  like  geraniums  and 
chrysanthemums.  In  such  cases,  the 
decayed  wooden  benches  or  woodwork 
of  the  house  are  often  the  sources 
from  which  the  pests  come.  Indeed, 
relief  from  injury  has  been  obtained 
by  the  removal  of  the  decayed  wood 

FIG.  129.  —  A   worker    .  ,  .   ,        ,  .  ,      ,     , 

termite,  (x  9.)  ln  which  the  termites  had  homes. 
The  modern,  iron-framed  greenhouses 
with  iron  and  cement  benches  furnish  few  homes  for 
these  pests. 

Since  the  workers  (Fig  129)  are  blind  and  avoid  the 
light  and  the  bodies  of  termites  are  soft  and  not  able  to 
withstand  drying,  the  injuries  of  these  pests  are  hidden 
and  often  unknown  until  suddenly  a  building  collapses  or 
a  piece  of  furniture  falls  to  pieces  or  the  inside  of  an  un- 
used book  is  found  literally  eaten  away.  No  evidence  of 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  369 

the  presence  of  the  culprits  inside  is  obtained  from  an  out- 
side examination.  A  piece  of  timber  may  appear  perfect 
from  the  outside  and  yet  be  nothing  but  a  shell  through 
which  one  can  push  the  finger  as  through  paper.  Here, 
again,  termites  were  brought  forcibly  to  the  attention  of 
the  author  through  their  work  of  mining  in  some  wooden 
blocks  used  as  supports  for  a  poultry  house  in  Mississippi. 
One  corner  of  this  house,  which  had  been  erected  for  ex- 
perimental purposes,  suddenly  began  to  settle.  On  exam- 
ination, the  wooden  blocks  under  this  corner  were  found 
literally  converted  into  mere  hollow  shells  by  the  insects, 
and  consequently  unable  to  support  the  weight  of  the 
building.  Drummond,  in  his  "  Tropical  Africa,"  writes  of 
this  phase  of  the  termites'  work  as  follows:  "You  build 
your  house,  perhaps,  and  for  a  few  months  fancy  you  have 
pitched  upon  the  one  solitary  site  in  the  country  where 
there  are  no  white  ants.  But  one  day  suddenly  the  door- 
post totters  and  lintel  and  rafters  come  down  together 
with  a  crash.  You  look  at  a  section  of  the  wrecked  timbers 
and  discover  that  the  whole  inside  is  eaten  clean  away. 
The  apparently  solid  logs  of  which  the  rest  of  the  house  is 
built  are  now  mere  cylinders  of  bark,  and  through  the 
thickest  of  them  you  could  push  your  little  finger.  Furni- 
ture, tables,  chairs,  chests  of  drawers,  everything  made  of 
wood,  is  inevitably  attacked,  and  in  a  single  night  a  strong 
trunk  is  often  riddled  through  and  through,  and  turned 
into  match-wood.  There  is  no  limit,  in  fact,  to  the  depre- 
dation of  these  insects,  and  they  will  eat  books,  or  leather, 
or  cloth,  or  anything;  and  in  many  parts  of  Africa  I 
believe  if  a  man  lay  down  to  sleep  with  a  wooden  leg  it 
would  be  a  heap  of  sawdust  in  the  morning." 

A  most  interesting  account  of  damage  by  white  ants 
2n 


\ 


370  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

to  a  dwelling-house  and  adjacent  buildings  in  Illinois  has 
been  related  by  Forbes.  It  so  well  describes  the  injuries 
sometimes  committed  by  these  insects  that  it  is  given  here 
in  full :  — 

"A  remarkable  case  of  injury  to  a  small  dwelling-house, 
built  on  an  open  prairie  in  Putnam  County,  was  brought 
to  my  attention  by  a  letter  from  H.  K.  Smith,  written 
April  19,  1886,  in  which  he  reported  that  some  insect 
unknown  to  him  was  literally  eating  up  a  neighbor's 
house,  granary,  etc.  Visiting  this  place,  I  found  that  the 
house  (built  twenty-one  years  before)  consisted  of  a  small 
main  building  resting  on  a  brick  foundation,  and  an  addi- 
tional lean-to,  the  floor-sills  of  which  were  laid  upon  the 
ground.  About  six  feet  from  the  house  was  a  so-called 
cave,  built  in  1879  and  lined  with  new  lumber  —  pine  and 
oak  plank  —  the  latter  of  which  had  been  brought  from 
a  sawmill  about  two  miles  away.  Around  the  yard, 
passing  a  few  feet  from  the  house,  was  a  post  and  board 
fence,  and  about  thirty  feet  away  was  a  granary  with 
small  out-houses  near  by. 

"The  ants  were  first  noticed  in  1881,  when  they  were 
seen  to  collect  on  the  floor,  under  a  jar  which  had  been 
left  there  for  several  days.  In  1884  the  wooden  walls 
of  the  'cave'  broke  in,  and  in  1886  it  collapsed  com- 
pletely, all  the  lumber  in  it  being  practically  destroyed. 
The  fragments  of  this  wood  remaining  contained  a  great 
number  of  white  ants  at  the  time  of  my  visit.  They  were 
also  found  in  several  posts  of  the  fence  six  or  eight  feet 
away,  but  had  not  visibly  affected  a  young  ash-tree  about 
ten  feet  from  the  cave.  The  lean-to,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  thoroughly  infested  by  them,  the  surface  of  the  sills 
being  generally  gnawed  or  riddled  to  the  depth  of  an  inch 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  371 

or  more.  The  clapboards,  eaten  in  many  places  to  a  shell, 
were  readily  broken  by  the  fingers,  the  ends  of  the  boards 
especially  being  eaten  and  broken  away.  The  window- 
casing  above  and  below  the  window  was  almost  completely 
hollowed  out ;  even  the  shingles  on  the  roof  contained 
many  ants ;  and  the  floor  was  also  somewhat  eaten.  This 
damage  extended  across  both  ends  of  the  lean-to,  which 
was  about  ten  feet  wide,  but  did  not  reach  the  main  part 
of  the  house. 

"  Two  years  before,  in  1884,  the  owner  had  taken  aboard 
from  the  cave  to  the  granary,  and  in  1886  the  floor  of  the 
oats  bin  had  broken  through,  spilling  the  oats  upon  the 
ground.  An  examination  of  pieces  of  wood  from  this 
building  showed  that  the  ants  had  practically  eaten  up 
the  floor,  and  that  they  had  also  gnawed  away  the  surface 
of  the  wooden  lining  of  the  bin  as  high  as  the  grain  extended 
sometimes  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more.  In  the 
woods,  near  the  sawmill,  whence  the  oak  lumber  for  this 
farmer's  cave  originally  came,  I  found  an  abundance  of 
white  ants  in  fallen  rotten  wood. 

"  After  my  visit  the  owner  destroyed  his  granary  and 
thoroughly  cleaned  out  the  cave,  burning  up  all  the  damaged 
wood,  but  neglected  to  follow  my  advice  to  kill  all  the  ants 
on  his  premises  with  kerosene  or  gasoline.  They  were 
consequently  still  continuing  their  injuries  to  the  house 
in  1888,  and  had  also  infested  a  corn-crib  near  by." 

There  are  other  instances  on  record  of  injury  to  build- 
ings by  termites  in  this  country.  A  large  area  of  the  floor- 
ing in  the  United  States  National  Museum  was,  at  one 
time,  seriously  undermined  and  weakened  by  a  colony  of 
termites  that  could  not  be  located.  It  finally  became 
necessary  to  replace  the  wooden  floor  entirely  by  one  of 


372  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

cement.  Marlatt  tells  us  that  "a  few  years  ago  it  was 
found  necessary  to  tear  down  and  rebuild  three  frame 
buildings  in  Washington  in  consequence  of  the  work  of 
this  insidious  foe." 

W.  G.  Johnson  records  an  interesting  and  serious  in- 
jury to  a  large  church  in  Baltimore.  The  winged  indi- 
viduals of  the  termites  had  swarmed  in  great  numbers 
in  the  Sunday  School  room  of  the  church  during  service 
and  caused  a  good  deal  of  confusion.  On  investigation, 
the  floor  joists,  which  rested  directly  on  the  ground,  were 
found  to  have  been  entirely  honeycombed.  Even  the 
laths  and  studding  of  the  walls  of  this  room  had  been 
badly  mined,  so  that  eventually  all  the  woodwork  in  the 
room  had  to  be  removed  and  replaced  with  new. 

Since  the  introduction  of  our  species  of  termites  into 
Europe,  it  has  caused  considerable  injury  there.  Some 
years  ago  it  entered  one  of  the  Imperial  hothouses  at 
Vienna  and  caused  such  persistent  and  decided  injury,  in 
spite  of  all  that  was  done  to  prevent  its  ravages,  that  the 
building  had  finally  to  be  torn  down  and  replaced  with 
one  of  iron  framework. 

There  are  also  several  instances  of  injuries  by  termites 
to  stored  documents,  books,  and  papers.  In  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  a  great  many 
records  and  documents  had  been  stored  in  a  moist  vault 
in  the  basement  of  a  building  and  left  undisturbed  for 
several  years.  When  they  were  finally  examined,  they 
were  found  practically  ruined  by  the  excavations  and 
minings  of  white  ants.  Much  the  same  experience  was 
h?-d  in  Illinois  where  an  accumulation  of  books  and  papers 
belonging  to  the  state  was  destroyed  by  the  work  of 
termites. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  373 

It  is  said  that  white  ants  are  responsible  for  a  good  deal 
of  injury  to  potatoes  growing  in  soil  rich  in  vegetable 
matter  or  in  new  land  containing  decaying  roots,  stumps, 
and  branches.  The  injuries  consist  of  irregular  pits  bored 
into  the  potatoes  or  of  much  larger  and  irregular  excava- 
tions extending  into  the  flesh  of  the  tubers  to  the  depth  of 
a  fourth  of  an  inch  or  even  more.  In  the  particular  in- 
stance in  which  this  injury  was  definitely  traced  to  the 
termites,  the  potatoes  were  growing  in  soil  recently  cleared 
of  an  old  apple  orchard. 

Methods  of  control.  —  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
these  pests  live  permanently  in  dead  wood  only  and  that 
if  the  colony  can  be  located  and  the  vegetable  material 
in  which  it  lives  destroyed,  the  trouble  will  cease.  In  the 
case  of  the  injury  to  pecan  seedlings,  the  trouble  ceased 
as  soon  as  all  roots,  stumps,  and  other  decaying  debris 
had  been  removed  from  the  field.  Again,  our  species 
selects  moist  situations  and  attacks  books  and  papers 
stored  in  moist,  damp  basements.  Therefore,  if  we  would 
protect  books  from  these  pests,  we  should  store  them  in 
light,  dry  rooms. 

Basement  floors  and  all  underground  parts  of  buildings, 
at  least  in  the  tropics,  should  be  made  of  cement,  brick, 
or  stonework.  Rooms  containing  books  and  papers 
infested  with  termites  may  be  fumigated  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  as  already  outlined  in  Chapter  XVII. 
In  this  case,  however,  care  should  be  taken  to  scatter 
the  books  and  papers  about  more  or  less  so  that  the 
gas  will  have  free  access  to  the  insects  and  their  mines. 

Termites  may  be  fought  somewhat  like  the  true  ants. 
An  effort  should  be  made  to  locate  the  nest  and  then  it 
should  be  destroyed  if  possible.  There  is  nothing  to  be 


374  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

gained  by  giving  any  attention  to  the  swarming  individuals 
except  in  watching  them  to  determine  the  point  from  which 
they  are  emerging.  If  this  can  be  discovered,  it  will  give 
a  clew  to  the  location  of  the  colony  and  operations  against 
the  pest  should  begin  at  once,  especially  if  they  are 
located  in  a  building.  The  timbers  containing  the  nest 
may  be  removed  and  burned,  or,  possibly,  they  may  be 
treated  with  live  steam  or  soaked  with  kerosene.  If 
the  timbers  are  situated  so  that  they  can  be  subjected 
to  a  temperature  of  125°  F.  or  over  for  a  few  hours, 
the  insects  in  their  different  stages  may  be  destroyed. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  also,  that  swarms  of  winged 
individuals  indicate  the  presence  of  danger. 

In  the  tropics,  much  more  care  and  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  prevention  of  injuries  from  this  insect. 

In  South  Africa  a  machine  known  as  the  "universal 
ant  destroyer"  is  much  used  for  killing  the  termites  in 
their  nests.  The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a  stove, 
or  brazier,  and  a  force  pump.  A  mixture  of  white  arsenic 
and  sulfur  is  burned  on  the  hot  coals  of  the  stove  and 
the  fumes  are  forced  by  the  pump  into  all  parts  of  the 
nest. 

The  author  is  not  aware  that  the  results  of  any  definite 
experiments  on  the  treatment  of  timbers  with  preservatives 
to  protect  them  from  white  ants  have  ever  been  published. 
The  late  C.  B.  Simpson,  entomologist  in  the  Transvaal 
of  South  Africa,  had  a  series  of  such  experiments  in  prog- 
ress but  it  was  probably  never  completed.  The  treat- 
ment of  timbers  with  creosote  has  been  recommended 
for  protection  against  the  injuries  of  white  ants,  but  the 
author  is  not  aware  of  any  definite  experiments  to  dem- 
onstrate its  value. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  375 


REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  TERMITES 

1880.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  White  ants  or  "wood-lice."  Kept,  of 
the  Ent.  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.  for  1879,  p.  207. 

1884.  PACKARD,  A.  S.  —  The  family  Termitidse.  Standard 
Natural  History,  Vol.  II,  pp.  142-147. 

1888.  KENT,  G.  H.  — White  ants  or  "wood-lice"  injuring  cotton 
plants.  Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  17. 

1895.  COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  Termitidae.  Manual  for  the  Study  of 
Insects,  p.  95. 

1895.  SHARP,  DAVID.  —  Termitidse.     Cambridge  Natural  History, 
Vol.  V,  p.  356. 

1896.  FORBES,   S.   A.  —  The  white   ant  in   Illinois.     Nineteenth 
Kept,  of  the  State  Ent.  of  111.,  pp.  190-204. 

1896.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  white  ant.     Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  70-76. 

1897.  SIRRINE,   F.  A.  —  Termites  as  a  greenhouse  pest.     Expt. 
Stat.  Record,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  7,  p.  557 . 

1898.  JOHNSON,  W.  G.  —  The  white  ant.     Bull.  17,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  92. 

1901.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —White  ants.     The  Insect  Book,  pp.  353- 
360. 

1902.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  white  ant.     Circ.  50,  s.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  1-8. 

1903.  HEATH,    HAROLD.  —  The    habits    of    California    termites. 
Biological  Bull.,  Vol.  4,  pp.  47-63. 

1904.  HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Insects  injurious  to  pecans.     Bull.  86, 
Miss.  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  28-32. 

1905.  GOSSARD,  H.  A. —Insects  of  the  pecans.    Bull.  79,  Fla. 
Expt.  Stat,  p.  312. 

1909.  UNKNOWN  AUTHOR.  —  Destruction  of  Houtkapper  white  ants. 
Circ.  16,  Dept.  Agri.,  Cape  Town,  Africa. 

1909.  SIMPSON,  C.  B.  —  Notes  on  the  termites  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, etc.  Farmers'  Bull.,  60,  Transvaal  Dept.  Agri., 
pp.  1-14. 

1912.  SNYDER,  T.  E.  —  Insect  damage  to  mine  props  and  methods 
of  preventing  the  injury.  Circ.  156,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.,  pp.  1-4. 


376  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


SPRING-TAILS 

The  spring-tails  are  very  small  insects  rarely  coming 
under  the  observation  of  any  one  but  entomologists. 
Occasionally,  however,  they  occur  in  vast  numbers  over 
limited  areas  so  that,  despite  their  small  size,  they  become 
very  conspicuous.  The  author  has  seen  thousands  of 
individuals  of  certain  species  on  the  surfaces  of  pools  of 
water  in  Texas.  The  water  actually  appeared  black 
from  the  presence  of  the  countless  bodies  of  these  tiny 
insects.  One  species,  known  as  the  snow-flea  (Achorutes 
nivicola),  is  sometimes  found  in  large  numbers  on  the 
snow  toward  spring.  Occasionally,  the  individuals  of  this 
species  become  so  abundant  in  maple  sugar-bushes  that 
they  cause  considerable  annoyance  by  getting  into  the  sap. 
The  spring-tails  are  widely  distributed  and  occur  at 
various  altitudes  and  under  widely  differing  climatic 
conditions.  They  seem,  however,  to  agree  in  one  char- 
acteristic, namely,  they  all  demand  a  certain  amount  of 
moisture  and  seem  unable  to  exist  for  any  length  of  time 
in  dry  situations. 

The  name  spring-tails.  —  These  tiny  insects  possess 
the  capacity  of  leaping  or  springing  suddenly  and  when 
disturbed  or  alarmed  will  try  to  escape  by  a  succession 
of  quick  leaps.  On  the  end  of  the  abdomen  is  a  tail-like 
appendage  forked  toward  the  extremity.  In  the  dead 
insect  this  appendage  extends  straight  backward  from 
the  body ;  but  in  the  living  insect  it  is  bent  forward  under 
the  body,  where  it  is  apparently  retained  in  position,  in 
some  species,  at  least,  by  means  of  a  catch  projecting 
from  the  under  surface  of  the  body  near  the  anterior  end 
of  the  abdomen.  The  catch  is  not  present  in  all  species. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  377 

When  this  tail-like  organ  is  suddenly  straightened  by 
the  insect,  its  body  is  thrown  into  the  air  and  projected 
some  distance  forward.  The  action  and  situation  of  this 
spring-like  organ  have  given  these  queer  insects  the  name 
of  spring-tails. 

Injuries  of  the  spring-tails.  —  The  following  letter  ac- 
companied with  specimens  from  a  correspondent  sets 
forth  in  a  clear  way  one  form  of  annoyance  occasionally 
caused  by  these  insects.  "We  keep  our  milk  in  a  cave 
dug  into  the  sand  and  rocked  up  on  the  sides  but  not 
'pointed  up.'  It  is  covered  with  rough  boards  sup- 
ported by  pine  poles  in  which  borers  are  working.  The 
cave  was  dug  last  fall.  The  floor  is  well-drained  coarse 
sand.  We  cover  the  milk  to  prevent  the  insects  in  the 
sample  bottle  getting  in,  but  to  no  purpose.  We  have 
used  two  thicknesses  of  cloth  held  down  by  tight  cord 
and  heavy  cover  on  top.  We  have  also  used  paper 
similarly  fastened,  but  to  no  profit.  The  insects  get  in, 
in  spite  of  everything.  Through  a  small  glass  they  appear 
like  maggots,  but  often  individuals  will  jump  a  couple 
of  inches  like  fleas.  They  are  not  in  the  cow,  for  milk 
set  in  the  house  does  not  show  them,  but  of  course  we 
cannot  keep  milk  in  the  house  these  days.  What  are 
they,  how  do  they  get  in  the  milk,  and  how  can  we  keep 
them  out  ?"  Although  the  specimens  were  badly  broken 
down,  we  were  able  to  identify  them  as  spring-tails,  but 
could  not  determine  the  species.  It  is  altogether  likely 
that  the  dampness  of  the  milk  cellar  attracted  them, 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  they  fed  upon  the  cream  in 
the  milk  receptacles.  It  is  believed  that  spring-tails 
live  largely,  if  not  wholly,  upon  decaying  vegetable 
matter. 


378 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


FIG.   130.  —  The  American  spring-tail, 
enlarged. 


The  American 
spring-tail  (Lepidocyr- 
tus  americanus).  — 
Marlatt  describes  and 
figures  a  new  species 
of  spring-tail  (Fig.  130) 
that  is  not  infrequently 
found  in  houses  in  the 
city  of  Washington. 
The  individuals  are 
apparently  often  found 
beneath  the  window 
sills,  in  bathrooms, 
and  "  sometimes,  un- 
der favorable  condi- 
tions, in  considerable 

numbers."    They  are  apt  to  occur  also  in  conservatories 

where  house  plants  are 

kept  and  where  the  con- 
ditions are  moist  enough 

to  make  it  agreeable  for 

them.     This   species   is 

shown  in  Fig.  131  after 

Marlatt.       Note     the 

spring-like       appendage 

on  the  underside  of  the 

body,  forked  at  the  end 

and  held  in  place  by  the 

catch. 
Methods  of  control.  — 

It    Should     be    borne    in     FlG.  131._  The  American  spring-tail, 
mind     that     the    Spring-  underside  of  body,  enlarged. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  379 

tails  demand  certain  degrees  of  moisture  and  cannot 
survive  in  dry  situations  such  as  are  ordinarily  found 
in  most  parts  of  a  house. 

In  situations  like  the  milk-house  to  which  reference 
was  made  in  the  letter  quoted,  we  would  suggest  that 
everything  portable  should  be  removed  from  the  room, 
and  the  earth  floor,  walls,  and  shelves  swept  as  clean  as 
possible.  Then  a  liberal  application  of  dry,  slaked  lime 
should  be  applied  to  the  floor,  woodwork,  and  as  much  as 
possible  to  the  walls.  It  would  probably  be  helpful  to 
add  sulfur  to  the  lime  in  almost  any  proportions  desired. 

When  these  insects  become  troublesome  in  the  house- 
hold proper,  the  moist  objects  or  surfaces  on  which  they 
gather  should  be  removed,  if  possible.  If  it  is  not  feasible 
to  remove  the  moist  objects,  they  could  be  dried  by  the 
application  of  slaked  lime  and  sulfur,  or  in  any  other 
manner  that  may  suggest  itself  as  most  convenient. 


THE   BOOK-LOUSE 

Atropos  divinatoria 

Often,  when  an  old  book  or  paper  yellowed  with  age 
that  has  lain  long  unhandled  on  the  shelves  is  removed 
and  the  leaves  turned,  numerous,  pale-colored,  wingless, 
lice-like  insects  may  be  seen  scudding  across  the  pages  and 
scurrying  away  to  hide  themselves  in  a  crack  or  crevice. 
They  are  commonly  known  as  book-lice  and  are  so  small 
that  nothing  can  readily  be  made  out  about  them  unless 
a  hand  lens  or  magnifying  glass  is  used.  In  fact,  they  are 
among  the  smallest  of  the  insects  and  belong  to  the  family 
Psocidce,  a  group  of  insects  probably  most  closely  related 


380 


HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


to  the  bird  lice.  There  are  several  species  of  the  family 
Psocidae  occurring  in  dwelling-houses,  but  none  of  them 
except  this  one  apparently  ever  becomes  numerous  enough 
to  attract  attention.  It  is  only  under  extraordinary  con- 
ditions that  this  book-louse  becomes  abundant  enough  to 
deserve  notice.  All  of  these  house  psocids  are  wingless 
insects  low  in  the  scale  of  de- 
velopment and  usually  quite  in- 
significant. 

This  tiny  book-louse  (Fig.  132), 
together  with  another  closely  re- 
lated species,  is  widely  known  as 
the  "death-watch."  It  has  long 
been  held  that  these  small  insects 
are  capable  of  making  and  do 
make  a  ticking  noise  similar  to  the 
Anobium  beetle  discussed  in  a  later 
chapter.  Many  entomologists  find 
it  difficult  to  believe  that  such 
small  and  frail  insects  are  capable 
of  producing  a  sound  audible  to  the  human  ear.  They 
are  of  the  opinion  that  the  sound  attributed  to  the 
psocid  is  really  made  by  the  Anobium  beetle.  This 
beetle  lives  in  burrows  in  old  wood  and  the  book-louse 
is  often  found  running  about  in  the  vicinity.  It  would 
be  very  natural  to  ascribe  the  ticking  of  the  invisible 
beetle  to  the  psocid  which  could  be  seen.  It  is  said, 
however,  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
sounds  made  by  these  two  insects. 

The  Rev.  W.  Derham,  an  English  rector  and  a  careful 
observer,  wrote  an  account  many  years  ago  of  his  obser- 
vations on  the  ticking  of  the  psocids.  He  says,  "I  am 


FIG.  132.  —  The  common 
book-louse,  enlarged. 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  381 

now  so  used  to,  and  skillful  in  the  matter  as  to  be  able  to 
see,  and  show  them,  beating  almost  when  I  please,  by 
having  a  paper  with,  some  of  them  in  it  conveniently 
placed,  and  imitating  their  pulsation,  which  they  would 
readily  answer."  He  found  that  they  would  tick  con- 
tinuously for  hours  with  regular  intervals  between  each 
beat,  thus  greatly  resembling  the  ticking  of  a  watch. 
The  author  is  not  aware  that  any  careful  observations 
on  the  ticking  habits  of  psocids  have  been  made  by  recent 
observers  and  the  question  still  awTaits  a  thorough  in- 
vestigation. The  true  death-watch  psocid  is  said  to  be 
Clothilla  pulsatoria,  although  some  confusion  regarding 
the  species  seems  to  exist. 

There  are  other  species  of  the  Psocidse,  larger  and  with 
wings,  that  resemble  plant  lice  and  live  out-of-doors  on 
the  trunks  of  trees,  old  walls,  and  stones  covered  with 
lichens  and  moss.  These  never  become  troublesome  in 
dwelling-houses. 

Food  and  habits  of  the  psocids.  —  The  book-lice  have 
biting  mouth  parts  and  live  upon  the  paste  of  book  bind- 
ings and  paper  and  upon  animal  or  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  They  also  feed  on  flour,  meal,  and  other  cereals, 
and  are  quite  destructive  to  specimens  in  natural  history 
collections,  especially  to  insect  collections.  The  author 
has  noticed  this  particularly  in  the  South,  where  the  bodies 
of  small  insects,  like  mosquitoes,  have  been  badly  eaten 
and  the  specimens  practically  ruined  in  a  very  short  time. 

These  insects  are  also  known  to  abound  in  barns  among 
straw.  Hagen  says  that  he  had  "on  one  occasion  found 
more  than  half  of  the  refuse  material  left  in  a  barn  after 
threshing  the  grain  to  consist  of  a  small  species  of  psocus." 
Lintner  tells  us  that  McLachlan  of  London,  England,  has 


382  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

found  myriads  of  the  house  species  in  the  straw  bottle 
envelopes  in  the  wine  cellar  of  his  house.  This  occurrence 
of  the  insect  in  straw  in  barns  may  account  for  its  occasional 
invasion  of  houses,  as  we  shall  see. 

Extraordinary  invasions  of  dwelling-houses.  —  Under 
ordinary  conditions,  this  book-louse  is  not  a  serious  pest 
in  households.  The  few  that  may  occur  here  and  there 
in  musty  unused  books  and  papers  give  no  occasion  for 
alarm  or  worry.  It  is  only  when  some  material  in  which 
they  breed  readily  and  rapidly  is  unwittingly  allowed  to 
lie  in  a  room  unused  and  undisturbed  for  a  long  time  that 
they  occasionally  swarm  over  the  house  in  almost  in- 
credible numbers.  Straw  or  husk  mattresses  seem  to  be 
favorite  breeding  places  for  them  and  apparently  afford 
about  the  only  centers  of  infection  for  this  pest.  For- 
tunately, their  invasions  are  rare.  There  are  a  few  in- 
stances on  record  where  this  psocid  has  invaded  house- 
holds in  immense  numbers  and  has  proven  exceedingly 
difficult  to  eradicate. 

One  notable  example  is  given  in  Insect  Life  in  a  letter 
written  by  Alfred  C.  Stokes  of  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  Oct.  8, 
1888.  His  letter  detailing  this  invasion  and  describing 
the  efforts  to  rid  the  house  of  the  pest  runs  as  follows  :  — 

"In  March,  1886,  a  lady  here  bought  a  new  mattress 
composed  of  hair  and  corn-husks.  It  was  used  daily 
until  the  following  August  when  the  family  left  home  for 
a  six  weeks'  vacation.  A  day  or  two  after  the  return  in 
September,  there  were  noticed  on  a  pair  of  shoes,  which 
had  not  been  in  recent  use,  several  little  colorless  creatures 
resembling  the  common  book-lice  in  appearance,  some 
of  which  have  been  sent  to  you.  Continuing  the  examina- 
tion, what  was  her  horror  to  find  the  under  surface  of 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  383 

the  lower  sheet  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  mattress 
almost  alive  with  the  insects.  To  use  her  own  language  : 
'A  pin-point  could  not  have  been  put  down  without 
touching  one  or  more  of  the  bugs.'  Further  search 
showed  a  very  unpleasant  state  of  affairs.  The  walls  of 
the  room  were  so  covered  with  the  insects  that  a  sweep  of 
the  hand  removed  them  by  the  thousand,  and  the  other 
rooms  in  the  house  were  almost  as  badly  infested.  The 
bureau  drawers  were  swarming  with  them.  They  were 
behind  the  pictures  and  between  the  pictures  and  the  glass 
in  crawling  cohorts.  They  were  under  everything  and 
in  everything.  To  say  that  the  neat  housekeeper  was 
beside  herself  is  putting  it  mildly  indeed. 

"  The  mattress  was  removed  and  examined.  Without 
exaggeration,  it  contained  millions.  Then  came  the  house- 
cleaning.  The  walls  and  floors  were  washed  with  a  solu- 
tion of  borax  and  corrosive  sublimate.  Pyrethrum 
powder  was  freely  used.  All  the  carpets  were  sent  to 
the  steam  cleaners.  The  furniture  was  beaten,  cleaned, 
and  varnished.  The  struggle  was  continued  for  a  year 
with  all  the  persistence  of  an  extraordinarily  neat  house- 
keeper. The  insects  had  the  best  of  it  and  held  possession 
in  undiminished  numbers.  The  family  then  removed 
to  a  hotel,  while  for  days  the  closed  house  was  fumigated 
by  burning  sulfur  and  the  scrubbing  processes  were 
afterwards  repeated.  The  insects  were  again  diminished, 
but  the  least  relaxation  in  the  struggle  was  soon  followed 
by  an  increase  of  the  enemy.  Again  the  house  was  vacated 
and  the  closed  rooms  were  subjected  to  the  vapor  of  ben- 
zine, basins  and  pans  being  filled  and  the  fluid  left  to 
evaporate.  The  scrubbing  processes  were  again  re- 
peated and  the  lady  began  to  hope  that  the  benzine  had 


384  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

been  the  concluding  touch,  although  she  continued  to  have 
the  creatures  on  her  mind  and  to  watch  for  them.  Her 
hopes  were  vain.  The  insects  are  still  in  the  house,  two 
years  after  the  removal  of  the  mattress  and  in  spite  of  all 
the  harsh  treatment  they  have  received." 

Lintner  in  his  second  report  describes  a  very  similar 
invasion  by  this  same  psocid.  In  this  instance,  two  beds 
with  bed  ticks  newly  filled  with  straw  were  found  swarm- 
ing with  the  psocids  one  morning  after  the  departure  of 
two  agents  that  had  occupied  only  one  of  the  beds  for 
the  night.  The  housekeeper,  of  course,  attributed  the 
infestation  to  the  occupants  of  the  bed,  but  that  could 
hardly  be  possible.  From  all  that  is  known  of  these  pests 
it  seems  most  likely  that  the  straw  used  in  the  ticks 
must  have  been  infested  while  in  the  barn. 

Methods  of  control.  —  The  use  of  straw  husk-filled 
ticks  or  mattresses  is  to  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible, 
especially  if  they  are  to  lie  on  a  bed  that  is  occupied  only 
at  rare  intervals.  Straw  should  be  carefully  examined 
before  being  used  to  fill  bed  ticks  and  if  these  pale,  lice- 
like  psocids  are  seen  on  it,  it  would  be  wiser  to  leave  the 
straw  to  be  fed  to  stock  or  to  use  it  as  stable  bedding  rather 
than  to  be  taken  into  the  house.  Even  though  straw  and 
husks  are  free  of  psocids  when  first  appropriated,  yet 
if  left  on  unoccupied  beds  in  dark,  damp  rooms  until  they 
become  musty,  the  chances  are  strongly  in  favor  of  in- 
festation. 

Whenever  straw  or  husk  ticks  or  mattresses  become 
infested,  they  should  be  removed  at  once  and  the  contents 
burned. 

In  case  of  severe  infestation  as  detailed  in  the  foregoing 
nothing  but  heroic  measures  will  avail.  The  carpets 


SOME   TROUBLESOME  INVADERS  385 

should  be  removed  and  the  floors  washed  thoroughly  with 
strong  soapsuds.  The  old  wall  paper  should  be  removed 
as  completely  as  possible  and  the  walls  washed  before 
repapering.  It  would  be  advantageous  to  spray  the  walls, 
especially  around  the  window  casings,  with  benzine  or 
gasoline.  Where  possible,  carpets  and  bedding  should  be 
steam  cleaned.  In  country  homes  this  is  not  always 
possible  and  here  the  carpets  should  be  hung  in  the  sun 
and  brushed  repeatedly  and  finally  sprayed  thoroughly 
with  benzine  or  gasoline. 

The  infested  rooms  may  be  fumigated  with  sulfur, 
at  least  2  pounds  to  1000  cubic  feet  of  space,  with  the 
room  closed  tightly  and  the  cracks  and  openings  calked 
as  already  explained. 

Fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  as  detailed  in 
a  later  chapter  will  also  be  found  effective  in  destroying  the 
pests. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THE  PSOCIDS 

1840.    WESTWOOD,  J.  —  Introduction  to  the  modern  classification 

of  insects,  Vol.  II,  p.  17. 
1885.    LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Atropos  divinatoria.    Second  Kept.  Ins. 

N.  Y.,  pp.  198-203. 
1888.    RiLEY-HowARD.  —  A  house  infested  with  Psocidse.    Insect 

Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  144. 
1895.    COMSTOCK,   J.    H.  —  The   Corrodentia.    Manual    for   the 

Study  of  Insects,  p.  98. 

1895.  SHARP,  DAVID.  —  Psocidse.    Cambridge    Natural    History, 
Vol.  V,  pp.  390-398. 

1896.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  book-louse.    Bull.  4,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  79. 

1905.    KELLOGG,  V.  L.  —  Book-lice,  etc.    American  Insects,  p.  111. 
For  more  general  literature  on  the  Psocidse  see  Lintner's  Second 
Report,  p.  203,  and  McLachlan's  papers. 
2c 


CHAPTER  XV 

SOME    WOOD-BORING   INSECTS   AND    THEIR 
RELATIVES 

AMONG  the  insect  pests  that  frequent  households  are 
certain  wood-boring  beetles  that  often  become  of  con- 
siderable importance.  These  beetles  sometimes  seriously 
injure  the  beams  and  framework  of  houses  and  other 
buildings,  besides  damaging  furniture  and  books.  They 
bore  long  cylindrical  tunnels  through  the  wood,  producing 
the  effect  known  as  "worm-eaten."  The  tunnels  made 
by  these  small  beetles  in  the  wood  are  often  so  numerous 
that  nothing  but  a  mere  shell  is  left,  of  the  beam  or  timber 
in  which  they  are  working.  Their  presence  is  usually 
indicated  by  circular  holes  on  the  surface  of  the  wood  and 
tiny  heaps  of  yellow  dust  on  the  floor  or  ground  beneath 
the  place  at  which  they  are  working.  The  beetles  are 
not  often  seen  because  they  remain  hidden  most  of  their 
life  in  their  burrows. 

POWDER-POST  BEETLES 

Perhaps  chief  among  these  offenders  are  the  so-called 
powder-post  beetles,  particularly  those  of  the  family 
Lyctidse.  These  small  beetles  (Fig.  133)  attack  stored 
hickory,  oak,  ash,  and  other  seasoned  hardwood  materials. 
They  are  also  found  in  rustic  work  and  sometimes  infest 
old  furniture,  ornamental  woodwork,  and  the  joists,  floors, 


SOME  WOOD-BORING  INSECTS 


387 


and  timbers  of  houses.  Generally  the  materials  infested 
are  badly  damaged  by  the  small  exit  holes  of  the  beetles, 
and  in  many  cases  the  inside  of  the  wood  is  eaten  away 
and  reduced  to  a  fine  dust-like  powder.  In  other  in- 
stances the  timbers  may  be  so  weakened  as  to  become 
positively  unsafe  and  a  menace  to  human  life.  Hopkins 
says,  "  We  have  evidence  of  a 
railroad  wreck  in  which  many 
lives  were  lost,  due  to  powder- 
post  injury  to  the  principal 
construction  timbers." 

Davis  reports  finding  a 
species  of  these  beetles,  Lyctus 
striatus  injuring  a  red  oak 
floor  in  a  college  hall.  The 
beetles  issued  from  the  sap 
wood  only  and  were  probably 
feeding  there  when  the  floor- 
ing was  manufactured,  at  least 
two  years  before.  In  the  fall 
of  1891  Webster  found  the 
same  species  injuring  the 
floors  and  posts  that  sup- 
ported the  floors  in  the  shops 
of  a  certain  manufacturing  concern  in  Ohio.  He  was 
able  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  beetles  to  some  oak 
lumber  that  had  been  piled  in  the  yards  for  the  purpose 
of  seasoning  it.  When  the  wood  had  been  taken  into 
the  shops  to  work  it  up,  the  beetles  had  been  carried 
with  it.  The  insects  apparently  were  injuring  only  the 
sap  wood  of  the  floors  and  posts.  Pettit  has  found 
the  beetles  working  in  finished  oak  and  maple  woodwork 


388  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

in  Michigan,  but  again  only  in  sap  wood.  We  have 
found  them  injuring  the  timbers  of  barns. 

It  seems  strange  that  these  insects  can  find  nutriment 
enough  in  the  dry  wood  they  chew  to  sustain  life.  It  is 
a  fact  though  that  they  do  thrive  on  their  diet  of  dry 
wood  and  the  older  and  more  seasoned  the  wood  is  the 
better  the  insects  seem  to  like  it  and  the  more  they  seem 
to  multiply  and  thrive.  The  conditions  which  seem  most 
favorable  for  the  attacks  of  the  powder-post  beetles  are 
perfectly  dry  wood  material  or  sap  wood  that  has  been 
stored  away  for  one  or  more  years.  Manufactured 
articles,  of  considerable  age,  timbers  and  floors  of  old 
houses  offer  favorable  points  of  attack.  As  a  rule,  the 
insects  seem  to  prefer  wooden  articles  that  are  not  painted, 
although  they  will  attack  old  wood  that  has  been  varnished, 
painted,  or  otherwise  finished. 

The  adults  of  the  powder-post  insects  are,  for  the  most 
part,  small,  slender,  dark  brown  to  nearly  black  beetles. 
Some  of  the  common  species  are  not  over  three-sixteenths 
to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  species  vary 
greatly  in  their  habits  and  life  history.  When  the  wood 
attacked  lies  out-of-doors  exposed  to  normal  climatic 
conditions,  the  winter  is  passed  by  the  insects  in  their 
burrows  in  an  inactive  dormant  condition.  When  the 
beetles  are  working  in  wood  in  heated  rooms,  their  activity 
may  continue  throughout  the  year.  Normally,  activities 
begin  in  the  spring  and  the  eggs  are  soon  laid  by  the  parent 
beetle.  Each  female  deposits  many  eggs  and  as  several 
females  may  lay  their  eggs  in  the  same  piece  of  wood 
there  may  be  scores  of  larvae  within  a  comparatively 
small  space.  As  a  result,  the  whole  interior  of  the  in- 
fested material  may  soon  be  reduced  to  a  mass  of  dry 


SOME   WOOD-BORING  INSECTS  389 

fine  powder.  The  larvse,  as  soon  as  they  hatch  from  the 
eggs,  tunnel  in  every  direction  through  the  wood,  gnawing 
and  feeding  until  they  attain  their  growth.  Each  larva 
then  enlarges  the  end  of  its  burrow,  forming  a  cell  in  which 
it  changes  to  a  pupa.  The  pupae  finally  transform  to  the 
adult  beetles,  which  emerge 
through  tiny  round  holes 
cut  in  the  wood. 

Closely  allied  to  the 
powder-post  beetles  is  the 
"  death-watch,"  Anobium 
tessellatum.  This  beetle  has 
often  been  a  source  of 
annoyance  to  superstitious 
people  who  believe  that 
its  tick  is  prophetic  of  the 
death  of  some  member  of 
the  family.  It  is  a  stout, 
reddish-brown  beetle,  at- 
taining a  length  of  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  FlG.  134.- The  death-watch 
an  inch  (Fig.  134).  Two  beetle,  enlarged, 

patches  of  pale  whitish  hairs 

extend  across  the  back  of  the  beetle,  one  near  the  base 
and  another  near  the  tips  of  the  wing  covers.  There 
is  also  a  patch  of  whitish  hairs  on  the  thorax.  The  head 
is  bent  beneath  the  thorax  and  wholly  hidden  from  a  top 
view.  The  death-watch  is  larger  than  most  of  the  powder- 
post  beetles  and  its  destructive  work  in  timber  is  cor- 
respondingly greater.  It  tunnels  in  wood,  especially 
woodwork  in  houses  and  often  causes  considerable  injury. 
Spence  tells  us  that  he  often  found  workmen  removing 


390  HOUSEHOLD    INSECTS 

the  whole  interior  timbers  of  old  houses  in  Brussels  and 
replacing  them  with  new  ones.  On  investigation  he  found 
that  the  timbers,  especially  the  floor  joists,  had  been 
destroyed  by  the  Anobium  beetles  "and  that  every  year 
the  same  process,  arising  from  the  same  cause,  is  called 
for  in  several  of  the  old  houses  of  the  city,"  thus  entailing 
an  enormous  expense. 

This  small  beetle  also  bears  a  good  deal  of  interest 
because  of  its  role  as  the  "death-watch."  The  ticking 
noise  so  often  heard  in  old  houses,  and  which  is  supposed 
to  portend  the  death  of  some  person,  is  probably  due, 
for  the  most  part,  to  this  beetle  and  its  close  relative, 
Anobium  domesticum.  The  ticking  noise  on  a  still  night 
is  amazingly  clear,  distinct,  and  penetrating.  It  is  small 
wonder  that  the  watcher  by  the  quiet  bedside  of  a  sick 
patient  in  the  silent  hours  of  the  night  should  be  filled 
with  a  portentous  dread  of  dire  happenings.  The  ticking 
is  caused  by  the  insect  striking  its  head  or  jaws  against 
the  walls  of  its  burrow  in  the  wood.  The  ticking  is 
maintained  for  a  few  seconds,  followed  by  an  interval 
of  quiet,  after  which  it  is  again  resumed,  thus  producing 
a  regular  succession  of  tappings.  Perhaps  the  regularity 
and  monotony  of  the  tappings  add  to  their  mysterious- 
ness.  Swift  discerned  the  real  significance  of  these  pe- 
culiar tappings  and  prescribed  a  method  of  dispelling  the 
omen  when  he  wrote :  — 

A  kettle  of  scalding  hot  water  ejected 
Infallibly  cures  the  timber  affected ; 
The  omen  is  broken,  the  danger  is  over, 
The  maggot  will  die,  and  the  sick  will  recover. 

It  is  held  that  the  ticking  is  really  a  love  call  of  one  sex 
for  the  other.  Those  investigators  who  have  observed 


SOME   WOOD-BORING  INSECTS  391 

the  tappings  most  carefully  say  that  the  tickings  are 
answered  regularly,  in  the  pauses,  by  a  beetle  in  another 
location.  The  beetles  and  their  noises  have  been  subjects 
of  investigation  by  several  observers  from  early  times.  In 
1867  Smith  found  it  easy  to  induce  some  beetles  that  he 
had  in  captivity  to  beat  whenever  he  wished.  He  simply 
tapped  four  or  five  times  with  a  lead  pencil  upon  the  table 
near  the  box  in  which  the  insects  were  confined.  He 
described  their  habits  as  follows:  "Raising  themselves 
on  their  anterior  legs,  they  commenced  bobbing  their 
heads  up  and  down  rapidly,  tapping  with  their  mandibles 
on  the  bottom  of  the  box.  This  performance  I  could 
elicit  almost  at  pleasure :  the  number  of  taps  varied  from 
four  to  five  —  usually  five  are  given.  The  insects  have 
kept  on  repeating  their  love-call  at  intervals  throughout 
the  day.  I  fancy  they  are  a  couple  of  males.  After 
inciting  them  to  tap  once  or  twice  they  become  restless, 
and  run  about  the  box,  occasionally  stopping  as  if  listening 
for  a  repetition  of  the  sound :  a  few  taps  with  the  pencil 
sets  them  off  again." 

A  later  investigator,  Morley,  made  some  careful  ob- 
servations on  the  ticking  of  Anobium.  He  found  that 
more  than  five  ticks  were  made  at  a  time.  He  was  unable 
to  count  them,  but  estimated  them  at  thirty  or  forty. 

The  foregoing  beetle  is  not  alone  responsible  for  the 
tappings  we  sometimes  hear  in  old  timbers.  A  closely 
related  species,  Anobium  domesticum,  also  ticks  and  has 
probably  often  been  the  cause  of  alarm  to  superstitious 
people. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  noted  that  these  Anobium 
beetles  are  also  injurious  to  books.  This  is  notably  true 
of  Anobium  hirtum,  a  native  of  southern  Europe  but  now 


392  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

known  to  exist  in  the  southern  United  States.  This 
beetle  has  been  found  by  Morgan  injuring  books  in  the 
State  Library  in  Baton  Rouge,  and  it  has  also  been  re- 
ported as  seriously  injurious  to  books  in  a  library  at  Grand 
Coteau,  Louisiana.  How  widely  it  is  distributed  in  the 
United  States  is  not  definitely  known.  Books  are  liable  to 
injury,  however,  from  these  different  species  of  beetles. 

PTILINUS 

Another  small  beetle  of  the  family  Ptinidse  occurs  in 
houses  and  is,  at  times,  quite  destructive  to  the  wood- 
work. Perhaps  the  best  known  instance  of  its  work  is 
that  given  by  Westwood.  The  beetles  were  found  to  have 
attacked  a  newly  made  bed-post  and  so  injured  it  that  it 
had  to  be  burned  two  or  three  years  afterward.  The  in- 
terior of  the  post  had  been  mined  until  it  was  ready  to 
crumble  into  dust.  This  happened  in  the  days  of  the 
old-fashioned  four-post  bedstead.  In  these  days  of  iron 
and  brass  bedsteads  these  tiny  beetles  must  find  that 
their  jaws  have  fallen  on  hard  places.  The  fashions  are 
changing,  however,  and  the  famous  wooden  furniture  of 
our  forefathers  seems  to  be  slowly  coming  back  into  favor. 
Thus  the  beetles  may  again  find  their  old  tastes  reviving 
and  the  means  at  hand  to  satisfy  them. 

The  species  principally  at  fault,  Ptilinus  pectinicornis, 
has  a  cylindrical,  reddish-brown  body  and  a  rounded  black 
thorax.  The  male  beetle  has  most  extraordinary  antennae 
for  so  small  an  insect.  The  antennas  seem  to  bear  a  long 
fringe  on  one  side.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  each  seg- 
ment of  an  antenna,  except  the  first  two  and  the  last, 
bears  a  long  lateral  appendage.  The  females,  which  seem 


SOME   WOOD-BORING  INSECTS  393 

to  remain  mostly  within  their  burrows  in  the  wood, 
have  ordinary  antennae. 

Felt  reports  a  species,  P.  ruficornis,  as  injuring  birch 
and  maple  floors  in  some  cottages  at  Saranac  Inn,  New 
York. 

WHITE-MARKED   SPIDER-BEETLE 

Ptinus  fur 

There  are  two  other  species  of  the  family  Ptinidse  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Ptinus  and  known  as  the  spider- 
beetles  that  demand  some 
notice.  There  is  the  white- 
marked  spider-beetle,  Ptinus 
fur,  which  is  perhaps  the  more 
common  of  the  two.  Both  are 
often  found  in  the  storerooms 
and  cellars  of  houses,  especially 
of  those  that  have  been  occu- 
pied a  long  time. 

The  white-marked  species  is 
a  reddish-brown  beetle  with  its 
body  well  covered  with  choco- 
late colored  hairs  (Fig.  135). 

m  j-rv  i      11       FIG.   135.  — The  white-marked 

The  two  sexes  differ  markedly        8pider-beetle,  enlarged, 
from    each  other.      The   wing 

covers  of  the  male  are  reddish-brown  throughout, 
whereas  each  wing  cover  of  the  female  is  marked  with 
two  patches  of  white  hairs.  These  patches  tend  to  run 
together  and  form  two  white  bands  across  the  back 
of  the  beetle.  The  female,  which  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  male,  attains  a  length  of  about  one-eighth  of 


394  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

an  inch.  Her  body  is-  stouter  and  rounder  than  that  of 
the  male.  The  body  of  the  male  is  nearly  cylindrical. 

The  materials  infested  by  this  insect  are  numerous.  It 
has  been  known  for  years  as  a  pest  to  books.  Linnaeus 
mentioned  it  as  a  pest  in  libraries  as  long  ago  as  1766. 
A  French  observer  reports  that  the  larva  of  this  beetle,  or 
of  the  drug-store  beetle,  penetrated  directly  through 
twenty-seven  large  quarto  volumes  in  so  straight  a  line 
that  a  string  could  be  passed  through  the  opening  and  the 
whole  series  of  volumes  suspended.  In  1836  Audouin 
found  great  numbers  of  the  larvae  of  this  beetle  in  flour  in  the 
village  of  Versailles,  France.  They  had  evidently  com- 
mitted serious  damage  to  this  stored  product.  Fletcher 
has  also  recorded  its  injuries  to  flour  in  Orillia  and 
Toronto,  Canada. 

Chittenden  relates  an  interesting  and  important  out- 
break of  this  insect  in  cotton  seed  stored  in  bags  in  a 
barn  near  Concord,  New  Hamphire.  The  insects  "had 
devoured  the  bags  and  increased  so  enormously  as  to  cover 
the  buildings ;  had  invaded  neighboring  houses,  and  were 
attacking  clothing  of  all  kinds."  The  owner  was  greatly 
worried  lest  the  insect  should  prove  a  much  more  serious 
pest  and  spread  through  the  town. 

In  addition  to  these  notices,  it  has  been  found  attacking 
wool,  furs,  clothing,  roots,  stuffed  animals,  dried  plants 
in  herbariums,  insect  specimens  in  collections,  and  various 
other  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

The  larvae  of  Ptinus  fur  are  small  and  whitish  in  color, 
resembling  closely  those  of  the  drug-store  beetle.  They 
cement  the  material  together  in  which  they  are  working, 
forming  a  delicate  case  in  which  they  live.  European  observ- 
ers generally  credit  the  insect  with  one  annual  generation 


SOME   WOOD-BORING  INSECTS  395 

but,  in  Washington,  it  has  been  carried  through  all  of  its 
transformations  in  about  three  and  one-half  months. 
The  pupal  period  lasted  thirteen  days. 

The  brown  spider-beetle  is  often  found  associated  with 
the  species  just  discussed.  There  is  not  the  great  differ- 
ence between  the  sexes  that  we  find  in  the  white-marked 
species.  This  species  is  widely  distributed,  having  been 
reported  from  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It  is  a  more  or 
less  serious  pest  to  books.  Leather-bound  and  sheep- 
bound  books  seem  to  be  their  favorite  food  in  the  book  line. 
They  usually  bore  galleries  in  the  leather  where  it  is  joined 
to  the  back  of  the  leaves  of  the  book. 

It  is  probable  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the  life 
history  and  habits  between  this  and  the  preceding  species. 
The  larvae  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  feathers,  fur, 
dried  mushrooms,  in  drugs,  in  the  powdered  leaves  of 
senna  and  Jaborandi  and  other  materials.  In  fact,  the 
larvae  live  upon  much  the  same  material  as  the  larvae  of 
the  white-marked  spider-beetle. 


METHODS  OF  CONTROLLING  THESE  SMALL  BEETLES 

In  the  case  of  the  powder-post  beetles  it  may  become 
advantageous  and,  in  fact,  absolutely  necessary  to  remove 
the  infested  timbers  and  replace  them  with  new  ones. 
This  is  especially  true  in  case  of  those  timbers  that  are 
used  to  support  heavy  materials.  Again,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  these  beetles  work  only  in  sap  wood. 
It  is  therefore  of  advantage  to  use  only  heart  wood  in 
construction,  if  it  is  possible  to  obtain  it. 

In  those  instances  where  it  is  not  possible  to  remove  the 
affected  timbers,  they  may  be  treated  to  a  thorough 


396  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

application  of  pure  kerosene,  benzine,  or  gasoline.  Also, 
where  conditions  are  such  that  the  infested  wood  can  be 
steamed  thoroughly,  this  treatment  will  suffice  to  destroy 
the  pests.  Again,  if  the  wood  can  be  subjected  to  dry 
heat  of  sufficient  degree  for  several  hours,  the  pest  will  be 
killed.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  certain  mill  insects 
may  be  killed  if  subjected  to  a  heat  of  125  to  130  degrees 
sustained  for  several  hours  or  long  enough  to  give  it  time 
to  penetrate  evenly  all  parts  of  the  infested  portion. 

In  case  of  the  other  beetles  mentioned,  the  same  methods 
of  control  will  hold  for  them  as  for  the  drug-store  beetle 
and  the  grain  beetles  already  discussed. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  THESE  BEETLES 

POWDER-POST  BEETLES 

1892.     DAVIS,  G.  C.  —  Notes  on  a  few  borers.     22d  Kept.  Ent.  Soc. 

Ont.,  p.  81. 
1896.     WEBSTER,  F.  M.  —  The  powder-post  worm.     Bull.  68,  Ohio 

Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  47-48. 
1903.     HOPKINS,  A.  D.  —  Powder-post  injury  to  seasoned  wood 

products.     Circ.  55,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

1905.  FELT,    E.    P.  —  Powder-post    beetle.     New    York    State 
Museum  Memoir,  8,  pp.  296-298. 

1906.  Pettit,    R.    H.  —  Powder-post   beetles.     Bull.    244,    Mich. 
Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  101-102. 


1836.  SPENCE,  W.  —  Notice  relative  to  Anobium  tessellatum.  In 
Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  x-xi  (1837-1840). 

1839.  WESTWOOD,  J.  O.  —  An  Introd.  Mod.  Classif.  Insects,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  269-271. 

1867.  SMITH,  F.  —  Note  on  Anobium  tessellatum.  The  Entomolo- 
gists' Monthly  Magazine,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  279. 


SOME   WOOD-BORING  INSECTS  397 

1895.  SCHWARTZ,  E.  A.  —  An  imported  library  pest.     Insect  Life, 
Vol.  7,  p.  396. 

1896.  BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Our  household  insects,  pp.  5-12. 

1910.    MORLEY,  CLAUDE.  —  The  taps  of  the  "death  watch"  beetle. 
The  Entomologist,  Vol.  43,  pp.  31-32. 


PTILINUS 

1836.  WESTWOOD,  J.  O.  —  Devastation  caused  by  Ptilinus  pectini- 
cornis.  In  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  Vol.  I,  p.  viii. 

1879.  TASCHENBERG,  E.  L.  —  Praktische  insektenkunde,  II, 
pp.  82-84. 

1896.     BUTLER,  E.  A.  —  Our  household  insects,  pp.  12-13. 

1905.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Small  red  horned  borer  (Ptilinus  ruficornis). 
New  York  State  museum  memoir,  8,  pp.  298-299. 

1903.     HOULBERT,  G.  —  Les  insectes  ennemis  des  livres,  pp.  72-73. 


1836.     AUDOUIN,  M. — Ptinusfur  in  flour.     Ann.delaSoc.Ent.de 

France,  Vol.  V,  p.  Ixii. 
1870.     SHIMER,   HENRY.  —  Book-worms.     Amer.  Ento.   and  Bot., 

Vol.  2,  pp.  322-323. 
1896.    CHITTENDEN,    F.    H.  —  The   white-marked    spider   beetle. 

Bull.  4,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  127. 
1903.     HOULBERT,  G.  —  Les  insectes  ennemis  des  livres,  pp.  93-99. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES 

THERE  exists  in  the  minds  of  many  persons  a  great  deal 
of  confusion  and  much  misinformation  regarding  insects 
and  allied  animals  that  may  possess  the  power  of  poisoning 
human  beings.  For  example,  there  is  a  widespread  and 
unwarranted  idea  that  most  if  not  all  spiders  are  veno- 
mous and  therefore  dangerous.  Moreover,  the  idea  that 
poisonous  insects  are  numerous  and  common  is  prevalent 
among  many  people.  Undoubtedly  considerable  unnec- 
essary fear  exists  regarding  poisonous  insects,  much  of 
which  may  be  allayed  if  we  can  get  at  the  truth. 

When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  spider  or  punctured  or 
stung  by  an  insect,  the  effect  will  depend  upon  several 
conditions.  First,  it  will  depend  upon  the  susceptibility 
of  the  person  injured  and  upon  the  condition  of  the  blood. 
Many  persons  are  very  susceptible  to  inflammation 
and  pain  from  the  stings  of  bees  or  wasps,  while  others 
suffer  very  little  discomfort  from  the  attacks  of  these 
insects.  Again,  the  severity  of  a  spider's  bite  may  depend 
upon  whether  the  wound  becomes  subsequently  infected 
with  harmful  bacteria.  The  bite  may  cause  some  irri- 
tation and  to  allay  it  the  patient  scratches  the  wound, 
thus  breaking  the  skin  and  inoculating  the  lesion  with 
bacteria  from  the  outside  that  may  cause  serious  blood 
poisoning.  Finally,  the  effect  of  an  insect  wound  may 
398 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     399 

depend  upon  the  general  health  of  the  individual  injured. 
A  person  in  poor  health  may  easily  suffer  considerable 
pain  and  discomfort  from  the  puncture  or  sting  of  an 
insect,  while  another  person  in  normal  health  may  hardly 
notice  an  equally  severe  attack. 


SPIDERS,   THEIR  VENOM   AND   BITES 

The  biting  organs  of  spiders  consist  of  two  rather 
elongated  jaw-like  organs  termed  chelicerce.  Each  chelicera 
is  composed  of  two  parts,  or 
segments,  the  base  and  the 
fang.  The  base  is  rather 
large  and  more  or  less  cylin- 
drical or  conical,  but  the 
fang  is  rather  slender  and 
hook-like  or  claw-like.  The 
fang  is  connected  to  the 
base  by  a  movable  joint  and 
moreover  has  within  it  a 
small  canal  which  opens  by 
a  minute  orifice  near  the  tip 
(Fig.  136).  All  spiders  pos- 
sess poison  glands  that  con- 
nect by  minute  ducts  with  FIG.  136.  —  Chelicera  of  a  spider; 

the  canals  in  the  fangs  of  the 
chelicerse.  The  poison,  how- 
ever, is  not  injected  into  the 

wound  by  pressure  exerted  by  the  fang  upon  the  gland, 
but  the  gland  itself  is  furnished  with  muscles,  under  the 
control  of  the  spider,  that  eject  the  poison  liquid.  Thus 
it  happens  that  a  spider  may  or  may  not  inject  its 


p,  poison  gland  ;  d,  duct  ; 
o,  opening  at  tip  of  fang ; 
/,  fang ;  enlarged. 


400  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

venom  into  the  wounds  made  when  it  bites  a  victim. 
This  may  account,  in  part,  at  least,  for  some  of  the 
variations  in  the  results  of  different  spider-bites.  The 
venom,  says  Castellani  and  Chalmers,  "is  an  oily,  trans- 
lucent, lemon-yellow-coloured  liquid  with  an  acid  reaction 
and  a  hot  bitter  taste." 

The  venom  of  spiders  is  undoubtedly  of  sufficient 
virulence  to  kill  certain  insects;  although  Blackwall 
came  to  the  conclusion  from  his  experiments  that  the 
deaths  of  spider-bitten  insects  resulted  from  the  loss  of 
blood  rather  than  from  the  effects  of  poison.  He  found 
that  bees,  wasps,  and  grasshoppers  survived  the  bites 
of  spiders  about  as  long  as  they  did  the  effect  of  needle- 
pricks  inflicted  in  the  same  parts  of  the  body.  Other 
experimenters  have  found  that  the  bites  of  spiders 
are  fatal  to  insects,  probably  due  to  the  effect  of  the  poison. 
The  amount  of  poison  necessary  to  paralyze  or  kill  an 
insect,  however,  would  not  necessarily  have  much  effect 
upon  so  large  a  body  as  that  of  a  human  being.  There  is 
much  conflicting  evidence  regarding  the  whole  matter. 

Blackwall  allowed  spiders  to  bite  him  and  could  not 
distinguish  the  sensation  from  that  of  a  needle-prick  made 
upon  the  hand  at  the  same  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
Bertkau,  when  bitten,  felt  clearly  the  effects  of  an  irritant 
poison  in  the  wound,  but  suffered  no  serious  consequences. 

Baron  Walckenaer  tested  the  effect  of  spider-bites  on 
his  own  person.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  bitten  by  some 
of  the  largest  species  of  spiders  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Paris.  With  him  the  sensation  from  the  punctures  pro- 
duced by  the  fangs  was  not  unlike  that  produced  by  the 
prick  of  a  fine  needle.  Moreover,  there  were  no  subse- 
quent harmful  effects.  In  his  opinion,  the  venom  of  a 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     401 

spider  has  less  effect  on  an  individual  than  that  of  the 
sting  of  a  bee  or  wasp.  Eugene  Simon  was  bitten  on  his 
finger  by  Lycosa  tarentula.  The  sensation  was  like  the 
prick  of  two  needles.  The  pain  was  sharp  and  some 
blood  flowed  from  the  slight  puncture,  but  the  wound 
healed  without  any  serious  consequences. 

One  more  instance  of  a  spider-bite  should  be  related 
because  it  is  an  authentic  case  in  which  the  spider  was 
caught  in  the  act  of  biting  by  a  trained  entomologist, 
who  recognized  the  species  and  noted  the  effect  of  the 
bite  on  his  own  person.  Theodore  Pergande,  an  entomolo- 
gist of  high  reputation,  found  a  fine  specimen  of  Lycosa 
viridicola  in  the  kitchen  of  his  residence  in  the  city  of 
Washington.  He  took  hold  of  the  spider  and  was  bitten 
on  the  terminal  joint  of  the  thumb.  The  sensation  was 
similar  to  the  prick  of  a  needle.  The  bite  produced  a 
red  spot  and  mild  piercing  pains  were  felt  in  the  thumb  and 
all  of  the  fingers  of  that  hand  for  the  rest  of  the  day. 
The  pains  passed  away,  however,  during  the  night  and 
no  further  inconvenience  was  suffered,  although  the  red 
spot  remained  for  several  days. 

The  tarantula  (Plate  VII)  is  perhaps,  as  Riley  says,  the 
most  famed  and  defamed  of  all  the  spiders.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  town  Tarentum  in  Italy,  but  just  what 
spider  of  southern  Europe  was  supposed  to  cause  the  taran- 
tula dance  is  not  surely  known.  Probably  it  was  a  species 
of  the  family,  Lycosidce.  Moreover,  the  confusion  has  been 
further  increased  by  extending  the  name,  tarantula,  to  a 
very  different  family  of  spiders.  In  the  United  States, 
the  tarantula  is  Eurypelma  hentzi,  found  in  the  Southern 
states.  It  is  a  large,  black,  hairy  spider  that  lives  in 
tubes  dug  in  the  earth. 

2D 


402  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

The  superstition  of  the  tarantula  dance  in  southern 
Europe  is  curious  and  interesting.  The  victim  of  the  bite, 
so  the  story  goes,  suffers  little  pain  at  first ;  but  after  a  few 
hours  becomes  very  sick,  breathes  with  difficulty,  and 
grows  weak  and  faint.  Then  the  patient  is  seized  with  a 
form  of  madness,  weeps,  dances,  laughs,  cries,  skips  about, 
passes  through  all  sorts  of  contortions  and  finally,  unless 
relieved,  expires.  The  prevailing  specific  for  this  poison 
is  music.  At  the  sound  of  music  the  victim  begins  the 
peculiar  movements  known  as  the  "tarentula  dance." 
The  dance  is  continued  until  the  dancer  breaks  out  in  a 
profuse  perspiration  which  forces  out  the  venom.  He 
then  falls  into  a  restful  sleep  from  which  he  eventually 
awakes  weak  but  relieved. 

Eugene  Murray-Aaron  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a 
bite  by  one  of  the  large  trap-door  spiders,  closely  related 
to  the  American  tarantula,  while  he  was  collecting  in  the 
West  Indies.  He  says  :  "  The  creature  was  lurking  in  the 
dried  sheaths  of  a  bamboo  clump  that  I  was  cutting  down 
for  building  purposes,  and  it  bit  me  twice  on  the  back 
of  the  hand  before  I  saw  him  (or  rather  her).  From  this 
bite,  on  which  I  used  the  usual  remedies,  I  suffered  more  or 
less  for  four  days  and  experienced  slight  pains  for  nearly  a 
month.  ...  I  undoubtedly  felt  the  symptoms  that  give 
rise  to  these  stories  (stories  of  the  tarantula  dance). 
For  perhaps  a  half  hour,  about  four  days  after  the  bite, 
I  was  afflicted  with  an  utterly  irresistible  twitching  of  the 
muscles  of  the  legs  and  arms,  and  the  spasmodic  action  of 
the  fingers,  eyelids,  and  tongue  was  most  distressing. 
Only  the  utmost  exertion  of  my  self-control  kept  me  from 
making  more  of  an  exhibition  of  myself  than  I  did." 

On  the  other  hand,  Herbert  Smith,  who  has  traveled 


PLATE  VII 


Tarantula,  above ;  chicken  ticks  and  brown-tail  moths,  below. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     403 

and  collected  in  Central  and  South  America,  says  regarding 
a  similar  species  of  spider,  "The  only  case  of  a  Mygale 
(large  trap-door  spider)  bite  which  has  come  under  my 
observation  was  that  of  a  man  who  was  bitten  on  the  foot 
deep  enough  to  draw  a  little  blood.  There  was  hardly 
any  swelling  and 
he  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  it." 

There  is  one  spi- 
der in  the  United 
States,  known 
as  the  "hour- 
glass" spider 
(Figs.  137,  138), 
Latrodectus  mac- 
tans,  that  has  a 
most  unsavory 
reputation.  It 
is  practically  the 
only  spider  in  this 
country  that  ento- 
mologists  are 
ready  to  admit  as 

possibly     seriously        FlG-  137-~  Hour-glass  spider,  dorsal  view. 
,  (X  2J.) 

dangerous      to 

human  beings ;  yet  here  again  there  is  no  definite 
authentic  proof  that  the  bite  of  this  spider  will  cause 
death.  Riley  and  Howard  relate  two  instances  in  which 
farm  laborers  near  Greensboro,  North  Carolina,  were, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  the  victims  themselves, 
bitten  by  what  was  judged  to  be  this  spider.  In  the 
first  case  the  victim  died,  while  in  the  second  case  the 


404 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


man  was  two  months  in  recovering  sufficiently  to  return 
to  work.  E.  R.  Corson  also  furnishes,  in  Vol.  1  of  Insect 
Life,  several  cases  in  which  the  evidence  points  strongly 
toward  the  hour-glass  spider  as  one  capable  of  seriously 
poisoning  human  beings. 

There  is  also  in  southern  Europe  a  spider  of  the  same 
genus,  Latrodectus  13-guttatus,  known  as  the  "Malmi- 
gnatte,  "  which  is  also  considered 
extremely  poisonous.  In  this 
instance,  however,  Lucas,  an 
eminent  authority  on  spiders, 
has  several  times  allowed  him- 
self to  be  bitten  by  this  par- 
ticular spider  without  any  ill 
effects.  Amid  such  conflicting 
evidence  it  is  impossible  to  say 
what  is  the  real  truth. 

The  author  feels  fairly  safe 
and  conservative,  however,  in 
saying  that  the  hour-glass  spider 
and  the  tarantula  are  the  only 
sHers  in  the  United  States 
that  need  be  feared  by  man. 
It  seems  safe  to  say  that  there  is  not  a  common  spider 
in  this  country,  outside  of  the  two  species  just  men- 
tioned, that  is  capable  of  causing  serious  injury  to  a 
normally  healthy  person.  It  is  possible  that  the  bites 
of  some  of  our  larger  spiders  are  capable  of  causing  an 
irritation  equal  to  a  bee-sting  to  individuals  in  a  weak 
condition  physically,  to  those  suffering  from  a  blood 
disease,  or  to  persons  subject  to  erysipelas,  or  susceptible 
to  poison-ivy  and  other  similar  affections. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     405 

The  whole  question,  it  seems  to  the  writer,  is  fairly  and 
conservatively  summed  up  by  McCook  in  the  following 
words,  so  pertinent  to  the  subject  that  we  quote  them  in 
full:  "Reasoning  from  analogy  of  other  venomous 
animals,  serpents  for  example,  it  is  probably  true  that 
much  of  the  effect  of  spider  venom  depends  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  spider  itself  as  to  degree  of  irritation,  etc., 
at  the  time  when  the  stroke  is  given.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  physical  condition  of  the  person  bitten  also  largely 
determines  the  effect  of  the  bite.  That  which  is  harmless 
to  one  individual  we  know  is  often  injurious  or  fatal 
to  another;  and  that  which  at  one  period  of  life  may 
produce  serious  results,  at  another  time  is  comparatively 
harmless.  It  is,  therefore,  probably  true  that  there  are 
a  few  of  our  indigenous  spiders,  as  Latrodectus  mactans  and 
Phidippus  morsitans,  which  at  certain  times  may  inflict 
an  injury  upon  certain  individuals  which  may  be  serious 
and  even  fatal.  But  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
there  is  no  more,  and  indeed  is  less,  reason  to  apprehend 
danger  from  a  stroke  or  bite  of  a  spider  than  from  the 
sting  of  a  bee  or  probe  of  a  mosquito. 

"Inthecase  of  the  immense  creatures  (Mygalidae)  known 
as  tarantulas,  the  matter,  of  course,  is  different.  It  would 
be  strange  indeed  if  such  large  animals,  with  so  formidable 
fangs  and  such  a  considerable  supply  of  venom  in  the 
poison  glands,  should  not  be  able  to  inflict  a  serious  wound. 
The  cases  which  have  been  reported  to  me  of  injury  result- 
ing from  the  stroke  of  these  large  spiders,  I  consider  suffi- 
cient to  establish  this  fact,  and  to  warrant  the  general 
feeling  that  they  are  animals  to  be  handled  with  great 
care." 


406  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 


OTHER  MEMBERS  OF  THE   SPIDER  GROUP 

The  scorpions,  the  itch  mites,  and  the  redbugs  are 
members  of  the  class  Arachnida,  to  which  the  spiders 
belong.  In  former  chapters,  we  have  already  discussed 
the  effect  upon  human  beings  of  the  irritation  caused  by 
these  animals.  There  remain  of  the  Arachnida  those 
gigantic  mites,  commonly  known  as  ticks,  and  the  spider- 
like  animals,  the  Solpugids. 

The  ticks  confine  themselves,  in  this  country,  at  least, 
mainly  to  quadrupeds.  Occasionally  certain  species 
attack  man  and  cause  considerable  irritation.  The  ticks 
are  simply  gigantic  mites  with  a  very  tough  leathery  skin. 
The  mouth  parts  consist  of  a  beak  or  rostrum  furnished 
with  hooks  at  the  free  extremity.  The  ticks  are  parasitic 
during  most  of  their  life  and  are  fastened  to  their  hosts 
entirely  by  the  rostrum,  which  is  driven  into  the  flesh  and 
securely  anchored  there  by  means  of  the  hooks  at  the  end. 
In  this  position  the  tick  sucks  the  blood  of  its  host.  The 
male  remains  small  and  is  not  often  seen.  The  body  of 
the  female  becomes  distended  until  she  resembles  a  large 
seed  or  bean.  In  some  species,  the  body  is  brightly  marked 
with  brown,  white,  yellow,  or  red. 

The  life  history  of  many  species  of  ticks  is  now  fairly 
well  known.  The  southern  cattle  tick  (Fig.  139)  may  serve 
as  a  representative  example.  When  the  female  is  full 
grown  she  drops  from  her  host  to  the  ground  and  lays  from 
2000  to  3000  brownish  eggs  in  a  rather  compact  mass. 
These  ultimately  hatch  and  the  young  ticks  are  known 
as  "seed-ticks."  The  seed-ticks  are  active  and  ascend 
the  nearest  weed  or  bush,  where  they  quietly  wait  until 
some  animal  passes  near  enough  for  them  to  catch  hold. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     407 

Many  of  the  seed-ticks  never  succeed  in  reaching  a 
host  and  consequently  perish.  When  once  attached  to 
its  host,  the  cattle  tick  remains  there  until  its  growth  is 
completed.  Other  species  of  ticks,  however,  drop  from 
their  host  to  the  ground  every  time  they  pass  through  a 
molt.  Since  these  ticks  must  find  an  individual  host 
after  every  molt  before 
they  can  make  further 
growth,  they  run  much 
risk  of  never  reaching 
maturity,  and  many  of 
them  must  die  while 
young. 

Ticks  have  assumed 
great  economic  impor- 
tance within  the  last  few 
years,  since  it  has  been 
learned  that  they  are  the 
carriers  of  numerous  dis- 
eases among  domestic  ani- 
mals. In  addition,  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  FlG'  iSQ.-The^uthern  cattle  tick. 
one  species,  Dermacentor 

venustus,  is  the  carrier  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  spotted- 
fever  among  human  beings.  This  disease  occurs  in  its 
most  virulent  form  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley  in  Mon- 
tana, but  it  is  known  to  occur  in  milder  form  in  parts  of 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Nevada.  The  bite  of  this 
tick  is,  of  course,  dangerous,  because  of  the  germs  of  the 
spotted-fever  that  are  carried  by  it  and  injected  with  its 
bite  into  the  blood  of  the  person  bitten. 

There  are  at  least  four  species  of  ticks  that  occur  in  the 


408  HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS 

southwestern  part  of  the  United  States  that  persist  in 
attacking  man  whenever  they  get  an  opportunity.  The 
bites  of  these  ticks  are  said  to  be  very  painful  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  bite  of  one  of  them,  at  least,  Ornithodoros 
turicata,  causes  inflammation  and  other  disorders. 

Ticks  are  abundant  in  woods  and  fields,  especially 
farther  south  and  often  attach  themselves  to  man.  They 
immediately  bury  the  rostrum  in  the  flesh  and  often 
cause  swelling  and  even  tumors  to  form.  Riley  gives 
an  instance  of  this  kind  that  happened  in  Pennsylvania. 
A  small  girl  who  had  been  playing  among  the  leaves  in  a 
wood  complained  of  a  pain  in  her  arm.  The  next  day 
an  examination  showed  that  a  swelling  had  formed  on  the 
arm  with  a  dark  spot  in  the  center,  looking  like  a  splinter. 
The  child  was  taken  to  a  physician,  who  found  that  the 
swelling  was  caused  by  a  tick  that  had  almost  embedded 
its  body  in  the  flesh.  The  tick  was  removed  with  con- 
siderable difficulty  and  proved  to  be  nearly  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  in  length.  Riley  judged  from  the  description 
that  it  was  Ixodes  unipunctata. 

The  writer  recalls  an  instance  of  his  youth  in  which  a 
so-called  wood  tick  became  fastened  to  his  neck  with  the 
rostrum  embedded  in  the  flesh.  The  irritation  caused  by 
the  presence  of  the  tick  and  the  pain  accompanying 
its  forced  removal  are  still  vividly  remembered.  Probably 
the  "wood  tick"  was  a  young  tick  of  the  genus  Ixodes. 

The  "Miana  bug"  or  "Malleh"  of  Persia  is  a  tick, 
Arga-s  persicus,  of  which  many  long  and  certainly  exag- 
gerated accounts  have  been  written.  It  is,  however, 
undoubtedly  a  serious  pest  in  certain  portions  of  Europe. 
It  is  said  that  they  inhabit  houses,  like  our  common  bed- 
bugs, sucking  the  blood  of  human  beings  whenever  the 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR   RELATIVES     409 


opportunity  is  offered,  and  inflicting  painful  wounds. 
They  are  reported  so  numerous  in  some  villages  that 
the  inhabitants  are  forced  to  leave.  We  have  two  closely 
related  species  in  this  country,  one  of  which  is  the  common 
chicken  tick  of  the  Southwest,  Argas  miniatus  (Plate  VII). 

The  solpugids  (Fig.  140)  are  spider-like  animals,  only  a 
few  species  of  which  occur  in  this  country.  They  are 
found  in  the  southern  and  western  portions  of  the  United 
States,  but  are  rarely  seen, 
probably  because  they  are 
chiefly  nocturnal.  They  rest 
quietly  during  the  day  safely 
hidden  beneath  stones  or 
sticks  or  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  but  come  forth  at 
dusk  to  resume  their  activi- 
ties. Seme  species,  however, 
are  active  during  the  day. 
They  are  very  agile  creatures, 
for  they  can  run  swiftly  in 
pursuit  of  their  prey  and  one 
species,  at  least,  is  an  expert 
tree  climber. 

There  has  been  consider- 
able controversy  regarding  the  poisonous  character  of 
these  animals.  The  people  of  Baku  in  southern  Russia 
along  the  Caspian  Sea  look  upon  them  as  exceedingly 
dangerous ;  but  no  poison  glands  have  ever  been  found 
in  the  Solpugids  and  several  investigators  have  allowed 
themselves  to  be  bitten  by  them  without  marked  results. 
It  seems  quite  safe  to  say  that  none  of  the  species  found 
in  the  United  States  are  dangerous. 


FIG.  140.  —  A  solpugid. 


410  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

REFERENCES  TO  LITERATURE  ON  POISONOUS  SPIDERS,  TICKS,  ETC. 


1837.     WALCKENAER.  —  Histoire  naturelle  des  insectes,  p.  177. 

1843.  LUCAS,  M.  H.  —  Annales  de  la  societe  entomologique  de 
France,  Vol.  I,  2d  ser.,  p.  viii.  A  note  on  Latrodedus  mal- 
mignatits. 

1855.  BLACKWALL,  J.  —  Experiments  and  observations  on  the 
poison  of  animals  of  the  order  of  Araneidea.  (1848).  Trans- 
actions of  the  Linnsean  Society  of  London,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  31-37. 

1889.  McCooK,  HENRY  C.  —  A  natural  history  of  the  orb-weav- 
ing spiders  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I,  pp.  268-284. 

1889.  RILEY  and  HOWARD.  —  A  contribution  to  the  literature  of 
fatal  spider  bites.  Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  204. 

1889.  The  spider-bite  question  again.  Insect  Life,  Vol.  1, 

p.  280. 

1889.     The  spider-bite  question.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  1,  p.  347. 

1892.  -   —Harmless  spider  bites.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  4,  p.  279. 

1893.  -   —  Painful  spider  bites.     Insect  Life,  Vol.  5,  p.  348. 

1902.     OSBORN,  H.  —  Poisonous  insects.     Reference  Handbook  of 

the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  V,  pp.  158-169. 
1904.     WILSON.  —  Records  of  the  Egyptian  government  school  of 

medicine,  pp.  7-43. 

1909.  WARBURTON,     CECIL.  —  Arachnida.     Cambridge     Natural 
History,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  360-365. 

1910.  CASTELLANI,  A.,  and  CHALMERS,  A.  J.  —  Manual  of  tropical 
medicine,  pp.  138-140. 

1912.    COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  The  spider  book,  p.  213. 

TICKS 

1902.     OSBORN,  H.  —  Poisonous  insects.     Reference  Handbook  of 

the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  V,  pp.  158-169. 
1908.     BANKS,  NATHAN.  —  A  revision  of  the  Ixodoidea  or  ticks  of 

the  United  States.     Tech.  Bull.  15,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

1911.  BISHOPP,  F.  C.  —  The  distribution  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
spotted-fever  tick.     Circ.  136,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     411 

1911.  COOLEY,  R.  A. — Tick  control  in  relation  to  the  Rocky 
Mountain  spotted  fever.  Bull.  85,  Montana  Expt.  Stat. 

1911.  HUNTER,  W.  D.,  and  BISHOPP,  F.  C.  —  The  Rocky  Mountain 
spotted-fever  tick.  Bull.  105,  Bu.  Ent,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


1902.     OSBORN,  H.  —  Poisonous  insects.     Reference  Handbook  of 

the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  V,  pp.  158-169. 
1909.     WARBURTON,    CECIL.  —  Arachnida.       Cambridge    Natural 

History,  Vol.  IV,  p.  424. 
1912.     COMSTOCK,  J.  H.  —  The  spider  book,  p.  35. 


CENTIPEDES 

The  centipedes  belong  to  a  group  of  animals  more 
closely  related  to  the  insects  than  are  the  spiders.  Earlier 
authors  place  the  centipedes  and  millipedes  together  in 
the  class  Myriapoda  (many-footed).  More  recent  in- 
vestigators tend  to  separate  the  two  groups  and  rank 
each  as  a  distinct  class.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware, 
the  millipedes  are  harmless  to  human  beings,  and  we  have 
no  concern  with  them.  The  centipedes,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  reputed  to  be  poisonous  to  man,  especially  the 
larger,  tropical  forms.  The  centipedes  which  we  shall 
discuss  and  which  are  commonly  known  and  dreaded, 
belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  family  Scolopendridce. 
We  shall  refer  to  them  as  scolopendras  or  simply  as 
centipedes. 

The  scolopendras  have  long  bodies  flattened  above  and 
below  and  divided  into  21  to  23  ring-like  segments.  Each 
segment  bears  one  pair  of  legs  and  the  last  pair  is  rather 
long.  The  head  bears  a  pair  of  long  antennae  (Fig.  141). 
They  are  active,  swift-moving  creatures  and  live,  for  the 


412  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

most  part,  in  dark,  obscure  places  beneath  logs,  stones, 
and  dried  leaves.  They  are  ferocious  and  live  upon  other 
small  animals.  The  larger  species  in  the  United  States 
occur  in  the  South  and  Southwest.  Some  of  these, 
Scolopendra  heros  and  S.  morsitans,  range  from  four  to 
six  inches  in  length,  with  a  specimen  occasionally  exceeding 
six  inches.  In  the  tropics,  even  larger  centipedes  are 
found.  One  species,  Scolopendra  gigantea,  of  Brazil,  often 
attains  a  length  of  twelve  inches  and 
sometimes  exceeds  this.  The  long 
powerful  legs  of  centipedes  enable 
them  to  catch  running  insects  and 
other  small  animals  incapable  of  flight. 
Their  flat,  thin  bodies  fit  them  to 
squeeze  and  wriggle  through  cracks 
and  into  crevices  in  pursuit  of  their 
prey. 

What  appears  to  be  the  first  two 
legs  of  centipedes  are  really  the  poison 
jaws  or  poison  claws,  as  they  are 
FIG.  HI.  — Centipede  more  often  termed.  Each  one  of 
reZcedTeXaS'  *""*  these  claw-like  appendages  is  com- 
posed  of  six  segments,  the  last  one 
of  which  is  long  and  modified  into  a  piercing  fang. 
Moreover,  each  poison  jaw  has  within  it  a  canal  that 
opens  near  the  tip  of  the  claw  and  communicates  with  a 
poison  gland.  The  contents  of  this  gland  can  thus  be 
discharged  through  the  canal  of  the  poison  jaw  directly 
into  the  wound  of  the  centipede's  victim.  There  is  no 
doubt  then  about  the  poisonous  nature  of  these  animals. 
The  only  question  is  regarding  the  effect  of  the  poison 
on  man. 


POISONOUS   INSECTS  AND    THEIR  RELATIVES     413 

Sinclair,  an  English  observer,  says  the  effect  of  the  poison 
"fluid  is  instantaneous  on  the  small  animals  which  form  the 
food  of  the  centipedes.  I  have,  myself,  watched  Lithobius 
in  this  country  creep  up  to  a  blue-bottle  fly  and  seize  it 
between  the  poison  claws.  One  powerful  nip  and  the 
blue-bottle  was  dead,  as  if  struck  by  lightning.  I  have 
also  seen  them  kill  worms  and  also  other  Lithobius  in  the 
same  way." 

Castellani  and  Chalmers  say  the  poison  of  centipedes 
"causes  local  and  general  symptoms.  At  first  there  is 
itching,  but  this  is  quickly  followed  by  intense  pain,  which 
extends  all  over  the  limb.  A  red  spot  appears  at  the  side 
of  the  bite,  which  enlarges  and  becomes  black  in  the  center 
and  sometimes  there  are  lymphangitis  and  lymphadenitis. 
The  general  symptoms  are  great  mental  anxiety,  vomiting, 
irregular  pulse,  dizziness  and  headaches.  Small  children 
have  been  known  to  die  from  the  effects  of  a  sting,  adults  as 
a  rule  recover  in  about  twenty-four  hours  at  most." 

In  1896  W.  W.  Norman  made  a  series  of  experiments 
with  some  Texas  centipedes,  Scolopendra  morsitans,  to 
determine  the  effect  of  their  bites  on  mice. 

In  the  first  experiment,  a  mouse  was  bitten  with  the 
poison  jaws  of  the  centipede  at  10  A.M.  The  mouse 
remained  active  during  the  day,  but  toward  night  became 
quiet,  and  the  next  morning  was  dead. 

In  the  second  experiment,  a  two-thirds-grown  mouse 
was  bitten  twice  in  quick  succession.  The  animal  be- 
gan at  once  to  die,  trembled,  gasped,  and  fell  over  dead. 
Another  adult  mouse  bitten  by  the  centipede  died  the 
following  night.  Other  experiments  on  mice  showed 
that  the  bite  when  fairly  made  was  fatal.  He  says  there  is 
no  evidence,  however,  to  substantiate  the  belief  that  the 


414  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

tips  of  all  the  legs  of  these  large  centipedes  are  poisonous 
and  that  they  inflict  severe  wounds  merely  by  crawling 
over  the  naked  skin. 

It  would  seem  from  all  the  evidence  we  have  been  able 
to  glean,  that  the  bite  of  a  centipede  will  vary  in  its 
effect,  depending  probably  upon  the  susceptibility  of  the 
person  wounded.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  the  centi- 
pedes occurring  in  the  United  States  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered seriously  dangerous.  The  larger  species  of  the 
Southwest  had  probably  best  be  avoided,  although  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason  for  the  hysterical  fear  of 
these  creatures  exhibited  by  some  people. 

REFERENCES  TO  LITERATURE  ON  POISONOUS  CENTIPEDES 

1887.     RILET,  C.  V.  —  Poisonous  insects.     Reference  Handbook  of 

the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  V,  p.  749. 
1893.     BOLLMAN,    C.    H.  —  The    Myriapoda   of   North    America. 

Bull.  46,  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

1895.  SINCLAIR,  F.  G.  —  Myriapoda.     Cambridge  Natural  History, 
Vol.  V,  p.  29. 

1896.  NORMAN,  W.  W.  —  The  poison  of  centipedes,  Scolopendra 
morsitans.     Proceedings  of  the  Texas  Academy  of  Science,  pp. 
118-119. 

1910.  POCOCK,  R.  I.  —  Centipedes.  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  llth 
Edition,  pp.  669-674. 

1910.  CASTELLANI,  A.,  and  CHALMERS,  A.  J.  —  Manual  of  tropi- 
cal medicine,  p.  143. 

THE   INSECTS 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  several  million  species  of 
insects  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  we  can  truly  say  that 
only  a  very  few  of  this  vast  number  possess  qualities 
poisonous  to  human  beings.  We  must  remember  that  a 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     415 

true  insect  is  an  animal  possessing  six  legs,  one  pair  of 
antennae,  and,  in  most  cases,  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings. 
Moreover,  the  body  of  an  insect  is  divided  into  three 
divisions,  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  A  fairly  sure 
criterion  to  enable  us  to  determine  whether  we  are  dealing 
with  a  true  insect  or  with  some  other  animal  is  the  number 
of  legs  present.  If  there  are  three  pairs,  we  may  gener- 


FIG.  142.  —  A  dragon-fly.     (X  1.) 

ally  be  sure  that  we  have  a  true  insect,  although  young 
mites  and  ticks  have  but  six  legs. 

Starting  among  the  lower  orders  of  insects,  perhaps  the 
dragon-flies  (Fig.  142),  snake  doctors,  devil's  needles  or 
spindles,  as  they  are  variously  called,  first  demand  our 
attention.  There  is  a  prevalent  idea,  among  children  at 
least,  that  these  insects  sew  up  human  ears,  bring  dead 
snakes  to  life,  and  perform  other  similar  miracles.  All 
this  may  be  dismissed  with  the  remark  that  they  are 
perfectly  harmless. 

The  earwigs  (Fig.  143)  are  said  to  have  received  their 
name  from  the  supposed  habit  they  have  of  crawling  into 
people's  ears.  It  is  a  curious  but  not  easily  explainable 


416 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


fact  that  these  insects  are  given  names  in  every  country 
in  which  they  occur  that  have  reference  to  this  attributed 
habit  of  entering  the  ears  of  human  beings.  For  instance, 
in  Germany  an  earwig  is  known  as  an  Ohren-wurm,  while 
in  France  it  is  known  as  perce  oreille.  Despite  this  wide- 
spread and  persistent  attempt  to  connect  these  insects 
with  human  ears,  by  name  at  least,  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  one  iota  of  evidence  to  show  that  the  earwigs  are 
any  more  apt  to  get  in  one's  ears  than 
are  other  insects.  In  fact,  there  are 
on  record  a  few  cases  where  other 
species  of  insects  have  accidentally 
crawled  into  the  ears  of  people,  but 
never  a  case  has  been  reported,  so 
far  as  the  author  is  aware,  of  an  ear- 
wig's performing  a  like  feat.  It  seems 
to  be  the  general  consensus  of  opinion 
among  entomologists  that  earwigs  are 
harmless  insects. 

There  are  in  the  order  Hemiptera 
several  species  that  may  cause  severe 
pain  by  the  punctures  of  their  pro- 
bosces.  Among  these  are  the  small 
water  insects,  known  as  back-swimmers,  Notonectidoe.  The 
back  of  one  of  these  insects  is  more  or  less  keeled  like  a 
boat  and,  unlike  all  other  aquatic  insects,  these  notonectids 
swim  on  their  backs,  using  the  hind  pair  of  legs  as  oars. 
They  possess  a  short,  powerful  beak  with  which  they  can 
inflict  most  painful  stings,  which  they  will  sometimes  do 
if  handled  roughly.  Under  ordinary  conditions  they  try 
to  escape  from  man.  Riley  says  that  the  pain  from  the 
puncture  of  the  proboscis  may  last  "sometimes  for  hours." 


FIG.  143.  —  An  earwig. 
(X2.) 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR   RELATIVES     417 


Those  long  slender  aquatic  insects  known  as  water 
scorpions  of  the  family  Nepidce  are  also  said  to  be  capable 
of  inflicting  painful  wounds  with  their  probosces. 

Probably  the  large  water  bugs  of  the  family  Belostomidcp 
are  better  known  for  the  painful  wounds  they  make 
with  their  rostrums.  These  insects  are  also  known  as 
electric  light  bugs  from  their  habit  of  congregating  around 
electric  lights  at  night. 
They  normally  live  in 
ponds,  lakes,  and  streams, 
but  are  often  attracted  by 
the  bright  street  lights  in 
great  numbers.  The  two 
more  familiar  species  are 
large,  brownish,  flat  bugs 
nearly  two  and  one-half 
inches  long  and  furnished 
with  large  strong  wings 
with  which  they  fly  long 
distances  (Fig.  144).  Each 
of  these  bugs  possesses  a 
short  but  powerful  beak 
with  which  it  can  inflict 
painful  wounds.  More- 
over, there  are  two  prominent  poison  glands  connected 
with  the  mouth  parts  from  which  a  poisonous  substance 
may  be  injected  into  the  wound  made  by  the  rostrum. 
Normally,  these  water  bugs  live  upon  other  insects,  small 
fishes,  and  tadpoles,  which  they  kill  with  their  poisonous 
punctures.  Their  presence  in  fish  ponds  is  undesirable, 
because  of  their  depredations  among  the  small  fishes. 

The  effect  of  their  punctures  in  the  flesh  of  man  is  often 

2E 


FIG.  144.  —  An  electric  light  bug 
(Belostoma).     (XI.) 


418  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

quite  severe.  Intense  pain,  swelling,  and  inflammation 
follow  the  stab  of  the  beak.  The  pain,  soreness,  and 
general  effect  of  the  puncture  may  last  for  several  days. 
In  handling  live  specimens  of  the  giant  water  bugs  con- 
siderable care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  the  insects 
from  obtaining  an  opportunity  to  insert  their  beaks. 

A  word  should  be  said  regarding  the  so-called  seventeen- 
year  locust,  or  more  properly,  the  seventeen-year  cicada. 
Whenever  outbreaks  of  this  insect  occur,  there  are  always 
many  accounts  in  local  papers  of  the  stings  inflicted 
by  the  cicada  on  human  beings.  Several  entomologists 
have  been  at  great  pains  to  trace  these  reports  to  de- 
termine the  truth  of  them.  In  every  case  where  this  has 
been  done  the  reports  have  been  found  to  have  been  with- 
out any  foundation  at  all  or  greatly  exaggerated.  In 
cases  where  apparently  there  was  some  truth  in  the  report, 
investigation  showed  that  the  "sting"  or  "bite"  was 
probably  due  to  some  other  insect. 

It  is  probable  that  the  cicada  can  pierce  the  flesh  with  its 
beak  and  perhaps  occasionally  does  so.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  evidence  to  show  that  there  is  any  poisonous  sub- 
stance injected  into  the  wound  or  that  the  "sting"  causes 
serious  pain  or  discomfort.  We  are  obliged  to  conclude 
that  the  periodical  cicada  is  a  harmless  insect. 

The  family  of  bugs  known  as  the  assassin  bugs,  Reduviidce, 
contains  many  species  that  are  capable  of  inflicting  very 
severe  wounds  on  human  beings.  The  so-called  kissing 
bug  belongs  to  this  family.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  most  of  these  bugs  will  not  harm  man  unless  driven 
to  it. 

A  few  years  ago  many  accounts  appeared  in  the  news- 
papers regarding  the  "bites"  of  the  so-called  kissing  bug. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     419 

The  kissing  bug  craze  apparently  began  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  but  soon  spread  over  the  whole  United  States. 

L.  O.  Howard  investigated  the  matter  at  the  time  and 
found  that  at  least  two  species  were  apparently  re- 
sponsible for  the  origin  of  many  of  the  reports.  He 
found  that  these  two  species,  the  "  cannibal  bug,"  Reduvius 
personatus,  and  the 
kissing  bug,  Melano- 
lestes  pidpes,  were 
more  abundant  than 
usual  around  Washing- 
ton and  that  they  had 
been  taken  in  the  act 
of  biting  people. 

The  cannibal  bug 
(Fig.  145)  is  a  Euro- 
pean species  that  was 
introduced  into  this 
country  many  years 
ago.  It  frequents 
houses  for  the  purpose, 

apparently  of  preying      FJQ  ^  _The  cannibal 
upon    bedbugs.      Ihe  sonatus).    (x2.) 

young    of    this   insect 

are  covered  with  a  sticky  substance  to  which  all  kinds 
of  lint  and  dust  adhere,  so  that  they  are  most  com- 
pletely masked  by  particles  of  dust  and  foreign  materials. 

In  fact,  a  young  bug  resembles  an  animated  moving 
mass  of  lint.  Comstock  has  very  aptly  called  this  insect 
the  "masked  bedbug  hunter."  They  live,  however, 
upon  flies  and  other  insects  as  well  as  upon  begbugs. 
Riley  in  describing  the  habits  of  the  insect  says :  "  They 


420  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

move  very  deliberately  step  by  step,  with  a  long  pause 
between  each  motion,  which  is  executed  in  a  sudden  and 
jerky  manner ;  their  antennae  move  at  the  same  rate.  If 
a  fly  or  another  insect  is  offered,  it  is  first  touched  with 
the  antennae,  a  sudden  spring  follows,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  beak  is  thrust  into  the  prey." 

The  bite  of  this  insect  is  very  painful  and  leaves  a  feeling 
of  numbness.  Howard  relates  a  case  in  which  a  girl  was 
bitten  on  the  neck  by  this  insect.  The  puncture  was 
followed  by  considerable  swelling.  LeConte,  writing  of 
this  same  species,  under  the  name,  however,  of  Reduvius 
pungens,  says,  "  This  species  is  remarkable  for  the  intense 
pain  caused  by  its  bite.  I  do  not  know  if  it  ever  willingly 
plunges  its  rostrum  into  any  person,  but  when  caught 
or  unskillfully  handled,  it  always  stings.  In  this  case, 
the  pain  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  bite  of  a  snake  and 
the  swelling  and  irritation  which  result  from  it  will  some- 
times last  a  wreek.  In  very  weak  and  irritable  constitu- 
tions it  may  even  prove  fatal." 

The  so-called  "black  corsair,"  Melanolestes  picipes, 
is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  black  bug  sometimes  with  a  reddish  hue  on  the 
back  and  legs  and  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  length. 
It  hides  beneath  stones,  logs,  etc.,  and  can  run  swiftly. 

Lintner  quotes  a  letter  from  a  resident  of  Mississippi  re- 
garding the  bite  of  this  insect.  The  correspondent  wrote 
as  follows :  "  I  send  a  specimen  of  a  fly  not  known  to  us 
here.  A  few  days  ago  it  punctured  the  finger  of  my  wife, 
inflicting  a  painful  sting.  The  swelling  was  rapid,  and 
for  several  days  the  wound  was  quite  annoying.  You 
will  observe  the  peculiar  proboscis  with  which  it  was 
made." 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     421 

Howard  gives  several  instances  of  bites  by  this  insect. 
In  one  case  the  bite  was  upon  the  cheek  and  was  followed 
by  much  swelling  but  no  great  pain.  In  another  instance, 
a  person  was  bitten  on  the  end  of  the  middle  finger.  The 
first  sensation  was  much  like  that  of  a  bee  sting,  but  the 
pain  soon  became  very  much  worse,  followed  by  a  feeling 
of  weakness  accompanied  with  vomiting.  The  pain  ex- 
tended up  the  arm  and  the  sickness  lasted  several  days. 
In  another  case,  the  patient  was  bitten  while  in  bed  with 
painful  results  and  considerable  swelling.  It  is  important 
to  note  that  these  insects  will  enter  houses  and  bite  persons. 
Without  doubt,  a  closely  related  species,  Melanolestes 
abdominalis,  is  also  capable  of  inflicting  severe  wounds. 

There  are  two  species  of  bugs  that  occur  in  the  southern 
and  southwestern  portions  of  the  United  States  that  are 
evidently  responsible  for  many  of  the  punctures  attrib- 
uted to  kissing  bugs.  These  are  the  two-spotted  corsair, 
Rasahus  biguttatus,  and  its  close  relative,  Rasahus  thoraci- 
cus.  The  first  species  is  recorded  as  common  in  houses 
in  the  South,  where  it  preys  upon  bedbugs.  The  same 
species  has  been  supposed  to  be  common  in  California,  and 
A.  Davidson,  formerly  of  Los  Angeles,  has  attributed  nearly 
all  of  the  so-called  spider  bites  in  Southern  California  to 
the  punctures  of  this  insect.  He  describes  the  injuries 
produced  in  some  detail :  "  Next  day  the  injured  part  shows 
a  local  cellulitis  with  a  central  dark  spot ;  around  this  spot 
there  frequently  appears  a  bulbous  vesicle  about  the  size 
of  a  10-cent  piece  filled  with  a  dark  grumous  fluid  ;  a  small 
ulcer  forms  underneath  the  vesicle,  the  necrotic  area  being 
generally  limited  to  the  central  part,  while  the  surrounding 
tissues  are  more  or  less  swollen  and  somewhat  painful. 
In  a  few  days  with  rest  and  proper  care  the  swelling  sub- 


422  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

sides,  and  in  a  week  all  traces  of  the  cellulitis  are  usually 
gone."  Davidson  treated  the  cases  with  a  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  1  to  500  or  1  to  1000,  applied  to  the 
affected  portion.  It  would  seem  from  a  careful  study  of 
the  species  from  the  Southwest  by  Heidemann,  that  the 
more  common  species  in  that  region  is  the  Rasahus  tho- 
racicus. 

Probably  the  best  known  of  all  these  bugs,  at  least  so 
far  as  its  life  history  goes,  is  the  blood-sucking  cone-nose, 
Conorhinus  sanguisugus.  In  the  Southwest  it  is  known  as 
the  Mexican  bedbug  or,  simply,  the  big  bedbug.  It  is 
common  in  houses  and  its  bite  seems  to  be  very  severe  and 
painful.  It  is  confined  to  the  Southern  and  Western 
states. 

LeConte  in  describing  this  insect  says:  "This  insect,  .  .  . 
inflicts  a  most  painful  wound.  It  is  remarkable  also  for 
sucking  the  blood  of  mammals,  particularly  of  children.  I 
have  known  its  bite  followed  by  very  serious  consequences, 
the  patient  not  recovering  from  the  effects  for  nearly  a 
year."  We  might  add  that  we  have  found  the  large 
nymphs  of  this  bug  in  Mississippi  attacking  young  chickens 
and  causing  serious  injury.  Miss  Kimball  reports  the 
same  habits  of  the  bug  and  adds  that  when  abundant  they 
attack  horses  in  barns. 

The  cone-nose  is  a  large  bug  about  an  inch  long  with  a 
flat  brownish  body.  The  edges  of  the  abdomen,  which 
are  thin  and  project  on  each  side  beyond  the  wings,  are 
variegated  with  pink  and  dark  areas,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing (Fig.  146).  The  head  is  long,  narrow,  pointed,  and 
furnished  with  a  strong  beak.  It  is  a  nocturnal  insect 
and  often  flies  into  rooms  through  the  open  windows  at 
night. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     423 

The  eggs,  which  are  white  but  later  change  to  yellow 
and  pink,  are  laid  out-of-doors  normally  and  hatch  in 
about  twenty  days.  Marlatt  says  there  are  four  stages  in 


FIG.  146.  —  The  blood-sucking  cone-nose.     (X  3.) 

the  development  of  the  young  to  adults  and  that  in  all  of 
them  the  insect  is  very  active. 

The  bite  of  the  cone-nose,  like  that  of  most  insects,  will 
vary  in  its  effects  with  the  nature  of  the  individual  bitten. 
The  piercing  of  the  skin,  says  Marlatt,  "is  evidently 
accompanied  by  the  injection  of  some  poisonous  liquid  or 


424  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

venom,  making  a  sore,  itching  wound,  accompanied  with  a 
burning  pain  sometimes  from  two  to  four  days,  and  often 
associated  with  swellings  which  may  extend  over  a  good 
deal  of  the  body.  That  there  is  a  specific  poison  injected 
is  indicated,  rather  conclusively,  by  the  very  constant  and 
uniform  character  of  the  symptoms  in  nearly  all  cases 
of  bites  by  this  insect."  It  is  known  that  a  closely  related 
bug,  found  in  California,  is  attracted  by  carrion,  and  it  is 
thought  that  part  of  the  serious  effect  of  the  punctures  by 
the  cone-nose  may  be  due  to  inoculation  of  the  wound 
with  bacteria  obtained  from  decaying  animal  matter. 
Undoubtedly,  the  wounds  made  by  these  different  kissing 
bugs  are  often  infected  with  harmful  bacteria,  which  are 
responsible  for  some  of  the  trouble. 

Miss  Kimball  says  that  some  relief  from  the  bites  of  the 
cone-nose  may  be  had  by  bathing  the  parts  with  camphor 
and  ammonia.  Bathing  the  wounds  with  sweet  oil  has 
proven  of  value  in  some  cases. 

There  are  other  closely  related  bugs  of  the  family 
Reduviidae  that,  on  occasion,  may  puncture  human  beings 
and  cause  considerable  pain  and  discomfort. 

We  have  already  discussed,  rather  fully,  the  bites  of 
certain  dipterous  insects,  such  as  the  mosquitoes,  black- 
flies,  punkies,  and  others.  A  short  account  of  the  "  screw 
worm"  fly,  however,  should  be  included  here. 

The  "screw  worm"  is  the  larva  of  a  small  fly,  Chrysom- 
yia  macellaria,  about  two-fifths  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
of  a  bluish-green  color  with  metallic  reflections.  On  the 
back  of  the  thorax  there  are  three  longitudinal  black 
stripes.  This  fly  is  said  to  be  distributed  from  Canada 
to  Patagonia,  but  its  activities  and  injuries  in  the  United 
States  are  confined  largely  to  the  Southern  states.  It 


POISONOUS   INSECTS  AND   THEIR   RELATIVES     425 

lays  its  eggs  in  a  wound  on  some  animal  or  in  decaying 
animal  matter.  A  single  fly  may  deposit  three  or  four 
hundred  eggs  in  a  very  few  moments.  The  eggs  hatch 
within  a  few  hours  and  the  maggots  burrow  into  the 
tissues  of  the  wound  or  into  the  decaying  mass.  The 
flies  are  a  great  pest  to  cattle,  and  other  domestic  animals, 
for  when  an  opportunity  occurs,  the  eggs  are  deposited  in 
flesh  wounds  or  sores,  where  the  maggots  cause  serious 
injury.  When  the  mag- 
gots are  mature,  they  fall 
to  the  ground,  wrhere  they 
bury  themselves  and 
pupate.  The  life  cycle 
may  be  passed  in  two  to 
three  weeks. 

The  attacks  of  this  pest 
on  man  are  usually  made 
by  a  deposition  of  eggs  in 
the  nostrils  or  mouth  while 
the  victim  is  asleep.  Snow 
has  related  several  cases  FIG.  147.- Screw  worm  fly.  ~<X3j.) 
of  infestation  of  man  by 

this  fly.  In  most  of  these  cases  the  patients  were 
sufferers  from  catarrh,  which  may  account  for  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  flies.  Also,  in  most  of  the  cases  where  the  facts 
were  known,  the  eggs  had  been  deposited  in  the  nostrils 
or  mouths  of  the  patients  while  asleep.  In  one  case,  a 
fly  attacked  a  man  while  riding  in  a  buggy  and  deposited 
eggs  in  his  nose  before  he  could  prevent  it.  In  most  of  the 
cases  the  maggots  burrowed  through  the  tissues  of  the 
nose,  mouth,  and  soft  palate,  even  honeycombing  the 
bones,  and  generally  proved  fatal  to  the  victim. 


426  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

There  are  many  instances  of  the  occurrence  of  the 
larvae  of  bot-flies,  known  as  warbles,  in  man.  The  ox 
bot-fly,  or  heel  fly,  Hypoderma  lineata,  occasionally  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  flesh  of  man,  where  they  hatch,  but  the  larvae 
do  not  seem  to  find  conditions  suitable  to  their  develop- 
ment and  usually  emerge  before  complete  maturity.  The 
European  ox  bot-fly,  //.  bovis,  now  known  to  occur  in  this 
country,  attacks  man  rather  more  frequently,  particularly 
in  Norway. 

There  is  in  South  America  a  bot-fly  that  deposits  its 
eggs  so  commonly  beneath  the  skin  of  the  natives  that 
it  has  been  termed  the  bot-fly  of  man,  CEstrus  hominis. 
There  seems  to  be  considerable  doubt,  however,  regarding 
the  exact  species.  Moreover,  this  same  fly  also  attacks 
monkeys,  dogs,  and  other  mammals.  Foreigners  visit- 
ing the  localities  infested  by  this  fly  are  apt  to  be 
attacked,  especially  when  bathing.  The  presence  of  the 
maggots  beneath  the  skin  does  not  seem  to  cause  any  great 
uneasiness  among  the  affected  natives,  although  LeConte 
says,  "  they  produce  a  swelling  having  the  appearance  of  an 
ordinary  boil  in  which  at  times  is  felt  for  a  few  seconds  an 
acute  pain  when  the  worm  moves."  Blanchard  refers,  in  an 
extended  paper,  to  two  species,  Dermatobia  noxialis  and  D. 
cyaniventris,  as  affecting  man  throughout  tropical  America. 

The  cat  and  dog  fleas  and  the  human  fleas,  with  their 
relation  to  disease,  have  been  fully  discussed  in  a  former 
chapter.  The  bites  of  these  common  fleas  and  their 
annoyance  to  man  are  really  very  trifling  compared  with 
the  injuries  of  the  sand  flea,  Rhynchopriun  penetrans, 
also  known  as  the  jigger,  chigoe,  chique,  etc.,  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  America.  This  flea  affects  the  lower 
mammals  as  well  as  man. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     427 

The  female  fleas  burrow  into  the  flesh,  especially  be- 
neath the  toe  nails,  where  the  presence  of  the  insect  causes 
swelling  and  finally  ulceration  that  often  terminates 
fatally. 

In  the  order  Lepidoptera,  composed  of  the  butterflies 
and  moths,  we  find  certain  caterpillars  with  protruding 
"horns"  or  filaments  that  strike  terror  to  the  hearts  of 
many  timorous  people.  The  tomato  worm,  with  the 
horn  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  is  looked 
upon  with  great  fear  under  the  delusion  that  this  horn 
possesses  deadly  poisoning  power.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  tomato  worm  and  its  similarly  appearing  relatives 
are  perfectly  harmless  creatures.  So  it  is  with  the  thou- 
sands of  other  various  species  of  caterpillars  found  in 
North  America  with  the  exception  of  perhaps  18  or  20. 
C.  V.  Riley,  in  his  Fifth  Missouri  Report,  gives  a  list  of 
fifteen  stinging  or  urticating  caterpillars.  To  this  list 
we  must  now  add  the  caterpillar  of  the  brown-tail  moth 
and  a  few  others  of  slight  irritability.  So  that  out  of  the 
more  than  six  thousand  species  of  caterpillars  in  America 
north  of  Mexico  we  shall  not  find  more  than  18  or  20  that 
are  poisonous  and  none  of  these,  so  far  as  the  author  is 
aware,  with  the  exception  of  the  brown-tail  moth,  is 
really  to  be  considered  as  very  serious. 

The  few  caterpillars  that  possess  nettling  or  urticating 
powers  bear  sharp,  penetrating,  poisonous  spine-like 
setae.  In  several  species,  the  spines  of  these  caterpillars 
produce  distinct  irritation  and  annoyance  whenever  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  skin. 

Notable  among  these  are  the  caterpillars  of  the  flannel 
moths,  especially  Lagoa  crispata.  The  caterpillars  of  this 
moth  are  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in 


428  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

length.  They  are  short,  thick,  and  fleshy  and  covered 
with  a  dense  coat  of  long,  silky  brown  hairs  that  project 
upward  and  meet  to  form  a  ridge  or  crest  along  the  middle 
of  the  back  (Plate  VIII).  Interspersed  among  these  are 
short,  stiff,  hollow  spines  containing  a  poison  secreted  by 
certain  cells  in  the  skin  at  the  bases  of  the  spines.  When 
the  caterpillar  comes  in  contact  with  the  flesh  of  a  person's 
body,  the  tips  of  the  spines  penetrate  the  skin  and  evidently 
set  free  within  the  wound  a  poison.  The  result  is  a  dis- 
tinct irritation  varying  in  its  intensity  according  to  the 
susceptibility  of  the  person  attacked.  The  structure  and 
effect  of  nettling  hairs  are  more  fully  explained  in  the 
discussion  of  the  brown-tail  moth. 

These  caterpillars  feed  upon  blackberry,  oak,  apple, 
pear,  plum,  cherry,  and  birch.  They  have  been  described 
as  appearing  like  half  a  hen's  egg  cut  lengthwise  and  laid 
flat  side  down  on  a  leaf.  The  eggs  are  bright  yellow  and 
laid  on  end  in  rows  and  covered  with  scales  from  the  moth. 
The  larvae  molt  five  times  and  spin  dense  cocoons,  in 
which  they  pass  the  winter,  the  moths  appearing  in  the 
spring. 

The  beautiful  io  moth,  Automeris  io,  with  the  con- 
spicuous spots  on  the  hind  wings,  also  has  a  nettling  cater- 
pillar. The  female  moth  has  an  expanse  of  wings  of  three 
to  three  and  one-half  inches.  The  front  wings  are  dull 
purplish  brown  and  the  body,  together  with  the  bases  of 
the  wings,  is  covered  with  long  silky  hairs.  The  male  is 
smaller  and  brighter  colored,  being  of  a  deep  yellow  marked 
with  purple-brown.  The  moths  deposit  their  cream- 
colored  eggs  in  clusters  on  corn,  cotton,  cherry,  apple,  elm, 
and  oak.  These  hatch  into  small  caterpillars  covered  with 
six  rows  of  branched,  black  spines.  They  molt  and  grow 


PLATE   VIII 


Caterpillar  of  buck  moth  above ;  saddle-back  caterpillar  in  middle ;  larvse 
of  flannel  moth  and  of  io  moth,  below. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR   RELATIVES     429 

until  the  adult  caterpillar  becomes  two  inches  or  more  in 
length.  Moreover,  the  full-grown  caterpillar  differs  very 
much  in  appearance  from  the  young  ones.  It  is  now  vivid 
green  in  color  and  the  spines  are  green  but  tipped  with 
black.  There  are  also  two  conspicuous  lines  along  each 
side  of  the  body,  the  lower  one  of  which  is  white  and  the 
upper  red  (Plate  VIII). 

Like  the  flannel-moth  caterpillar,  the  spines  are  hollow 
and  contain  a  poisonous  substance  that  causes  irritation 
when  the  tips  of  the  spines  penetrate  the  skin.  This 
caterpillar  is  prob- 
ably most  abun- 
dant and  most 
often  seen  of  any 
of  the  nettling 
species.  At  least, 
it  has  been  sent  to 
the  author  more 
frequently  than 

any  of  the   Others.    FIG.   148.  —  The  buck  moth  (H.maia).     (X  1.) 

The  larva  of  the 

buck  moth,  Hemileuca  maia,  is  also  quite  notorious  as 
a  stinging  caterpillar.  The  moth  is  a  very  handsome 
one  with  a  wing  expanse  of  two  to  over  two  and  one-half 
inches.  The  wings  are  thinly  clothed  with  pinkish- 
brown  scales  except  for  a  wide  creamy-white  band 
running  crosswise  of  each  wing  (Fig.  148).  The  female 
deposits  100  to  200  eggs  in  a  ring  around  a  small  branch 
(Fig.  149).  They  remain  here  all  winter,  but  hatch  early 
in  the  spring,  sometimes  before  the  buds  break.  The 
caterpillars  are  gregarious  and  in  traveling  are  proces- 
sional, following  one  another  mostly  in  single  file.  They 


430 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


molt  five  times,  finally  becoming  from  one  and  three-fourths 
to  two  inches  or  more  in  length.  The  caterpillar  (Plate 
VIII)  is  brownish-black  and  the  body  is  more  or  less  cov- 
ered with  oval,  yellow  elevations,  or 
papillae.  On  each  segment  of  the  body, 
except  the  eleventh,  there  are  at  least 
six  fascicles  of  spines.  On  the  eleventh 
there  are  only  five,  but  on  several  of  the 
segments  there  are  eight.  The  spines 
in  the  two  median  rows  of  fascicles, 
which  are  shorter  and  lighter  in  color 
than  those  of  the  outside  rows,  are  more 
irritating  than  the  others. 

The  spines  are  evidently  like  those  of 
the  io  caterpillar  in  structure  and  cause 
very  similar  irritation  when  they  come 
in  contact  with  the  flesh.  Those  who 
have  had  experience  say  that  the  net- 
tling power  of  the  buck  moth  cater- 
pillar is  not  as  serious  as  that  of  the  io 
caterpillar. 

The    saddle-back    caterpillar,    Sibine 
stimulea,  is    an   interesting  larva  from 
its  peculiar  form  and  coloration.     It  is 
flat    on    the    under    side    but   rounded 
FIG.  149.  — Eggs  of  above     and     reddish-brown     in     color. 

the    buck    moth.    ~  ,  .  ,  „  .  „     ,       ,       ,     . 

(xi.)  Over  the  middle  portion  of  the  back  is 

a  bright,  pea-green  patch,  the  saddle- 
blanket.  In  the  center  of  the  blanket  is  the  saddle,  a 
broadly  elliptical,  purplish-brown  patch  often  edged  with 
white  (Plate  VIII).  The  body  of  the  caterpillar  is  armed 
along  the  sides  with  fascicles  of  spines  and  has  two  large 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     431 

tubercles  at  the  anterior  and  posterior  ends  bearing  spines. 
It  feeds  upon  corn,  rose,  apple,  grape,  currant,  cherry,  rasp- 
berry, blackberry,  and  other  plants.  The  moth  is  of  a 
deep,  rich,  reddish,  velvety-brown  color  with  a  wing 
expanse  of  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter. 

The  spines  of  this  caterpillar  have  much  the  same  net- 
tling power  as  those  already  discussed.  The  irritation  is 
similar  to  that  caused  by  the  io  moth.  The  parts  touched 
swell,  become  inflamed,  and  watery  blisters  appear.  In 
extreme  cases  numbness  of  the  entire  arm  may  follow. 

The  hag-moth,  Phobetron  pithecium,  caterpillar  is  an- 
other mildly  stinging  larva  of  a  most  curious  shape.  Its 
dark  brown  body  is  much  flattened  and  bears  eight  re- 
markable, fleshy  appendages  protruding  from  the  sides. 
When  the  caterpillar  is  roughly  handled,  some  or  all  of 
these  fleshy  appendages  become  detached  from  the 
body. 

Hubbard  gives  the  following  description  of  the  hag-moth 
caterpillar :  "  This  insect  receives  its  name  from  the  curi- 
ous hairy  appendages  which  cover  the  back  and  project 
from  the  sides  of  the  larva  and  have  a  backward  twist 
like  locks  of  dishevelled  hair.  They  are,  in  fact,  fleshy 
hooks,  covered  with  feathery,  brown  hairs,  among  which 
are  longer,  black  stinging  hairs."  There  seems  to  be  a 
difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  power  of  this  cater- 
pillar to  sting.  Lintner  quotes  a  correspondent  to  the 
effect  that  although  dozens  of  them  were  handled  every 
year  in  all  stages  and  all  ages,  yet  none  of  them  showed 
any  indication  of  a  power  to  sting.  Another  correspondent 
says,  "This  little  worm  has  a  Victor-Hugo-devil-fish  sort 
of  look,  but  cannot  sting,  and  is  perfectly  harmless." 

In  addition  to  the  nettling  caterpillars  already  discussed, 


432  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

the  following  species  occurring  in  this  country  have  been 
listed  by  Riley  as  possessing  urticating  powers  to  a  more 
or  less  degree :  Megalopyge  opercularis,  Euclea  pcenulata, 
Euclea  qiterceti,  Euclea  Moris,  Adoneta  spinuloides, 
Monoleuca  semifascia,  and  Acronycta  sp.  To  these  may 
be  added  a  few  that  are  only  mildly  nettling,  for  example, 
Euclea  indetermina,  Packardia  geminata,  Natada  nasoni, 
Halisidota  caryoe  and  Hemerocampa  leucostigma,  the  last 
two  of  which  can  hardly  be  put  among  the  urticating 
species.  Concluding  the  list,  however,  is  the  worst  one 
of  all,  the  brown-tail  moth  (Euproctis  chrysorrhcea)  of 
New  England.  This  insect  was  introduced  into  this 
country  from  Europe  in  the  early  nineties. 

The  brown-tail  moth,  now  distributed  over  a  large  part 
of  New  England,  is  proving  itself  a  many-sided  pest. 
The  caterpillars  not  only  devour  the  foliage  of  pear,  apple, 
peach,  and  other  fruit  trees,  forest  trees,  and  shrubs,  but 
cause  serious  injury  through  the  medium  of  their  stinging, 
nettling  hairs. 

The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  undersides  of  leaves  in  July  in 
masses  of  about  300  and  covered  with  hair.  They  hatch 
early  in  August  and  the  young  caterpillars  feed  on  the 
leaves.  A  little  later  they  begin  to  fasten  a  number  of 
leaves  together  with  silk,  forming  nests,  or  webs  on  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  At  the  approach  of  cold  weather 
200  or  more  of  the  partly  grown  caterpillars  crawl  into 
each  nest  and  remain  there  until  the  following  spring.  In 
the  spring,  the  caterpillars  emerge  from  their  winter  nests 
and  commence  feeding  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell. 
They  eat  voraciously,  molt  several  times,  and  become 
full-grown  during  June.  In  the  latter  half  of  this  month, 
the  caterpillars  spin  their  cocoons,  where  they  remain  in 


POISONOUS  INSECTS   AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     433 

the  pupal  stage  for  about  twenty  days,  when  the  moths 
appear. 

The  moth  is  snow-white  except  for  a  brownish  shade  on 
the  back  of  the  abdomen  and  a  large  globular  tuft  of  golden 
brown  hairs  on  the  end  of  the  body.  It  is  this  tuft  of 
conspicuous  brown  hairs  that  gives  it  the  name  brown- 
tail  moth  (Plate  VII). 

The  caterpillar,  when  full-grown,  is  an  inch  and  a  half 
to  an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  length,  reddish-brown  in 
color,  with  a  broken  white  line  along  each  side,  and  two 
red  tubercles  on  the  back  near  the  posterior  end.  The 
body  is  covered  with  long,  branching,  brittle  hairs,  and 
bears  many  very  short,  small  ones  which  are  barbed  and 
constitute  the  nettling  hairs. 

Wherever  these  caterpillars  are  in  abundance  in  the 
vicinity  of  human  beings,  a  disease,  known  as  "  brown-tail 
rash  "  appears.  The  disease  affects  mostly  the  neck,  hands, 
and  face,  although  it  may  break  out  all  over  the  body. 
It  begins  with  an  intense  irritation  followed  by  eruption 
resembling  eczema,  each  eruption  with  a  watery  blister 
on  top.  Sometimes  large  pustules  containing  pus  form 
on  the  skin.  The  first  attack  usually  lasts  a  week  or  ten 
days.  One  can,  however,  be  poisoned  as  often  as  the 
caterpillars  strike  the  skin.  The  trouble  is  said  to  be 
much  worse  than  that  caused  by  poison  ivy,  and  harder  to 
eradicate.  It  does  not,  except  possibly  in  rare  cases, 
when  combined  with  other  troubles,  terminate  fatally. 
It  seems  to  be  especially  severe  on  persons  suffering  from 
dropsy  and  tuberculosis.  The  disease  is  caused  by  the 
nettling  hairs  of  the  caterpillars  penetrating  the  skin. 
It  may  be  contracted  simply  by  coming  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  caterpillars,  although  not  in  actual  contact  with  them, 

2F 


434  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

for  the  fine  hairs  are  blown  everywhere  by  the  wind. 

Clothing  hung  out  of    doors  near    the    larvae    becomes 

covered  with  the  hairs  which  may  nettle  the  whole  body 

when  the  garments  are  worn. 

Moreover,  the  cocoons  of  the  insect  contain  nettling 

hairs  derived  from  the  caterpillars  and  are  dangerous  to 
handle.  Finally,  nettling  hairs  become 
scattered  over  the  bodies  of  the  moths, 
and  are  found  among  the  long  hairs 
in  the  tuft  on  the  end  of  the  abdomen. 
Unquestionably,  "  brown-tail  rash " 
or  dermatitis  is  the  severest  disease 
caused  by  nettling  caterpillars  in  this 
country.  For  many  years,  it  was  held 
that  the  disease  was  caused  merely  by 
the  mechanical  irritation  produced  by 
the  hairs  when  in  contact  with  the  skin. 
This,  however,  has  been  disproved  and 
the  real  cause  shown  by  Tyzzer  of 
Harvard  University. 

The  nettling  hairs  of  the  caterpillars 
are  short,  straight,  tapering,  needle- 
pointed  shafts,  barbed  for  their  entire 

FIG.  150.  —  Poisonous    ,         ,,     ,-,-,.       -,<-r\\       rr\\_  i        ,    i 

hairs  (P)  and  ordi-  length  (Fig.  150).     These  short,  brown, 
nary  hairs  (fi)  of  the  nettling  hairs  are  found  on  the  tuber- 

brown-tail    moth       ,  •,       •,        ,          j      -j          e   , i         T_J 

caterpillars.  cles  on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  abdo- 

men. They  seem  to  be  hollow  and 
filled  with  a  fine  granular  material  that  evidently  con- 
tains the  urticating  properties.  The  evidence  indicates 
that  the  poisonous  material  passes  out  of  the  hair  at  the 
basal  point,  although  Tyzzer  was  never  able  to  demon- 
strate the  presence  of  an  actual  opening  at  this  end  of 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES     435 

the  hair.  When  these  nettling  hairs  are  mingled  with  a 
drop  of  blood  on  a  slide  under  the  microscope,  there  is  a 
profound  effect.  The  strings  of  red  blood  corpuscles  are 
broken  apart  and  each  corpuscle  becomes  greatly 
changed  in  shape.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that 
similar  changes  take  place  in  the  blood  when  these  hairs 
penetrate  the  skin,  thus  producing  the  dermatitis. 

Many  remedies  have  been  advertised  and  recommended 
for  the  brown-tail  rash,  some  of  which  have  afforded 
relief.  For  a  time,  the  liberal  use  of  vaseline  was 
recommended,  but  of  late  certain  mixtures  producing  a 
cooling  effect  have  been  more  commonly  used  with  more 
satisfactory  results.  External  applications  of  alcohol  and 
witch  hazel  afford  considerable  relief.  According  to 
Howard,  a  mixture  compounded  after  the  following  pre- 
scription has  been  tried  repeatedly  with  good  effect :  — 

Menthol grains  10 

Zinc  oxide drams    2 

Aq.  calcis ounces   8 

Acid  carbolici drops    15 

For  nettling  insects,  in  general,  weak  solutions  of 
ammonia  or  ordinary  baking  soda  moistened  with  water 
and  applied  to  the  affected  areas  in  a  paste  will  allay  the 
irritation  and  give  relief. 

The  large  order  of  insects  composed  of  the  beetles, 
Coleoptera,  contain  very  few  poisonous  forms  existing  in 
this  country  and  very  few  in  the  world.  It  is  said  that 
some  beetles  are  capable  of  inflicting  severe  bites.  The 
saw-toothed  grain  beetle,  Sihanus  surinamensis,  has  the 
reputation  of  biting  people.  The  larva  of  a  beetle  in 
Angola,  Africa,  is  said  to  be  able  to  inflict  wounds  on  the 


436  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

soles  of  the  feet  by  means  of  their  stiff  bristles.  A  most 
virulent  poison  is  obtained  from  the  larva  of  a  Chrysome- 
lid  beetle,  Diamphidia  simplex,  that  occurs  in  Africa. 
The  African  bushmen  use  the  poisonous  properties  of  these 
larvae  to  poison  their  arrow  heads.  Some  authorities 
believe  the  poison  is  really  due  to  a  toxin  produced  by 
some  micro-organism  growing  in  the  decomposing  larvse. 

The  blister  beetles  of  the  family  Meloidae  possess 
poisonous  qualities.  The  powdered  bodies  of  these  beetles 
are  used  in  medicine  for  producing  blisters  on  the  human 
flesh.  The  well-known  European  Spanish  fly,  Cantharis 
vesicatoria,  is  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
distributed  all  over  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe. 

We  have  several  species  of  blister  beetles  in  the  United 
States,  many  of  which  contain  vesicant  properties  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  Many  of  our  species  are  injurious 
pests  to  plants,  especially  to  potatoes,  asters,  and  roses. 
They  come  in  great  swarms,  remain  a  few  days,  doing 
much  injury,  and  then  suddenly  disappear.  The  life 
histories  of  these  blister  beetles  are  very  complicated  and 
interesting.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  larvae  of  some 
species  live  upon  the  eggs  of  grasshoppers  and  in  the  nests 
of  solitary  bees  and  pass  through  many  remarkable 
transformations  before  becoming  adults. 

The  vesicant  properties  of  these  blister  beetles  are  due 
to  a  peculiar,  volatile  crystalline  substance  known  as 
cantharidin.  The  powdered  bodies  of  the  beetles  are 
known  to  pharmacists  as  cantharides.  The  substance, 
cantharidin,  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  essential  oils, 
and  externally  it  produces  blisters,  while  internally  it  is  a 
violent,  irritant  poison.  It  is  said  that  y or  gr.  put  on  the 
lip  will  cause  a  blister. 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES     437 

The  ants,  bees,  wasps,  and  their  relatives  that  constitute 
the  order  Hymenoptera,  are  the  final  insects  to  be  con- 
sidered among  those  irritating  to  man. 

The  Hymenoptera  is  divided  into  two  large  subdivisions, 
the  boring  Hymenoptera  and  the  stinging  Hymenoptera. 
The  members  of  the  boring  Hymenoptera  have  the  end  of 
the  abdomen  furnished  with  an  ovipositor  in  the  form  of  a 
boring  organ  with  which  holes  or  openings  may  be  made  in 
the  fruit,  leaves,  or  stems  of  plants,  or  in  the  bodies  of 
other  insects,  in  which  the  egg  may  be  deposited.  The 
boring  Hymenoptera,  represented  by  the  sawflies,  horn- 
tails,  gall-flies,  ichneumon-flies,  and  others  do  not  generally 
attack  or  seriously  annoy  man.  It  is  said  that  species  of 
the  genus  Ophion  occasionally  sting  human  beings,  causing 
a  transient  but  intense  pain. 

It  is  among  the  stinging  Hymenoptera  that  we  find  the 
distinctly  annoying  forms,  such  as  the  bees  and  wasps. 
The  members  of  this  subdivision  have  the  abdomen 
furnished  with  an  ovipositor  modified  into  a  weapon  of 
defense,  commonly  known  as  the  sting.  It  should  be 
understood  that  since  the  sting  is  a  modified  ovipositor, 
only  the  females  possess  a  sting.  Male  wasps,  bees, 
and  hornets,  do  not,  indeed  cannot,  sting. 

The  sting  of  a  worker  (infertile  female)  honey-bee  con- 
sists of  a  straight,  tapering,  spear-like  hollow  organ  com- 
posed of  three  pieces  surrounding  a  central  canal.  The 
base  of  the  sting  is  enlarged  into  a  bulb-like  portion  which 
is  hollow  and  connects  with  the  canal  in  the  sting.  There 
are  two  sets  of  poison  glands  connected  with  the  sting, 
one  of  which  contains  a  liquid  substance  having  an  acid 
reaction  and  supposed  to  consist  mainly  of  formic  acid, 
while  the  other  gland  contains  an  alkaline  secretion,  and 


438  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

is  known  as  the  alkaline  gland.  Both  glands  connect  with 
the  bulbous  portion  of  the  sting  and  thence  with  the  canal 
in  the  center,  so  that  the  poison  runs  down  this  canal 
directly  into  the  wound  made  by  the  sting.  The  end  of 
the  sting  is  barbed.  Experiments  by  Carlet  seem  to 
show  that  it  is  only  when  the  acid  and  alkaline  contents 
of  the  two  glands  mix  that  a  poisonous  effect  is  produced. 
He  showed  that  flies  artificially  inoculated  with  the  secre- 
tion of  either  gland  alone  lived  a  long  time,  even  in  spite 
of  the  necessary  mutilation ;  but  when  a  fly  was  inocu- 
lated with  the  acid  secretion  and  then  with  the  alkaline 
secretion,  it  died  in  a  much  shorter  time  —  supposedly 
when  the  two  secretions  came  together  in  the  body.  This 
detailed  description  of  a  bee  sting  with  its  poison  glands 
will  serve  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  stinging  mechanism 
of  the  bees,  wasps,  and  hornets,  for  they  are  probably  all 
similar,  although  perhaps  differing  in  detail  and  in  com- 
plexity. 

Among  the  stinging  Hymenoptera,  the  common  ants 
are  too  well  known  to  need  detailed  description.  The 
females  and  the  workers  (undeveloped  females)  of  many 
ants  possess  stings  furnished  with  poison  glands.  The 
stings  of  ants,  however,  are  not  barbed  and  may  therefore 
be  withdrawn  from  the  wound.  The  mound-building 
prairie  ant  of  the  West  and  the  agricultural  ant  of  Texas 
sting  severely  when  molested.  Some  ants  can  bite  sharply 
with  their  jaws,  at  the  same  time  injecting  formic  acid 
into  the  wound. 

The  cow-killer  ants  or  velvet  ants  of  the  South  and 
Southwest  are  usually  brilliant  insects  with  red  and  black 
bodies  densely  clothed  with  hair.  They  have  a  very  large 
sting  and  can  inflict  severe  and  painful  wounds.  As  the 


POISONOUS  INSECTS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES     439 

name  indicates,  they  are  supposed,  in  Texas,  to  kill  cows. 
At  the  same  time,  the  name  is  an  indication  of  the  severity 
of  the  sting. 

Most  persons  are  acquainted  with  the  paper  wasps, 
commonly  known  as  hornets  and  yellow-jackets.  The 
stings  of  these  insects  are  certainly  most  effective  organs 
of  defense.  The  effect  varies  among  different  individuals. 
The  wounds  are  very  painful  and  produce  much  inflamma- 
tion and  prodigious  swelling  on  some  individuals,  while  on 
others  unless  stung  many  times  the  effect  is  transient. 

REFERENCES  TO  LITERATURE  ON  POISONOUS  INSECTS 

1854-55.  LECONTE,  J.  L.  —  Redumus  pungens.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat. 
Sc.  Phila.,  Vol.  VII,  p.  404. 

1872.  LINTNER,    J.    A.  —  Biography    of   Hemileiica   maia.     Ent. 
Contribs.,  23d  Ann.  Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.,  pp. 
5-21. 

1873.  RILEY,  C.  V.  —  Stinging  larvae.     Fifth  Rept.  Nox.  Ins.  Mo., 
pp.  125-136. 

1883.  SNOW,  F.  H.  —  Hominivorous  habits  of  the  "screw-worm." 
Psyche,  Vol.  4,  pp.  27-30. 

1888.  LINTNER,  J.  A.  —  Melanolestes  picipes.     Fourth  Rept.  Ins. 
N.Y.,  pp.  109-114. 

1889.     The   hag-moth   caterpillar.     Fifth   Rept.  Ins.  N.  Y., 

pp.  183-192. 

1892.  BLANCHARD,  R.  —  Sur  les  (Estrides  americaines  dont  la 
larve  vit  dans  la  peau  de  l'homme.  Annales  de  la  Societe 
Entomol.  de  France,  Vof  LXI,  p.  109. 

1894.  KOLBE,    H.    J.  —  Der    pfeilgiftkafer    der    kalahari-wuste, 
Diamphidia  simplex  Pering.     Stettiner  Entomologische  Zeitung, 
IV,  pp.  79-86. 

1895.  SHARP,    DAVID.  —  Insects.    Cambridge    Natural    History, 
Vols.  V  and  VI. 

1896.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  blood-sucking  cone-nose.    Bull.  4, 
Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  38-42. 


440  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

1896.  OSBOKN,  H.  —  The  screw-worm  fly.  Bull.  5,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  123-133. 

1896.  DYAR,  H.  G.,  and  MORTON,  E.  L. — Life-histories  of  the  New- 
York  slug  caterpillars.    Jr.  N.  Y.  Ent.  Soc.,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  1-9. 

1897.  DYAR,  H.  G.  —  Life-histories  of  the  New  York  slug  cater- 
pillars.    Jr.  N.  Y.  Ent.  Soc.  Vol.  V,  pp.  1-14. 

1898.  -    —  Life-histories  of  the  New  York  slug  caterpillars.     Vol. 
VI,  pp.  1-9. 

1898.    MARLATT,  C.  L.  —  The  periodical  cicada.    Bull.  14,  n.s.,  Bu. 

Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  59-61. 
1898.     PACKARD,  A.  S.  —  Text-book  of  entomology,  p.  191. 

1898.  LUGGER,  OTTO.  —  Butterflies  and  moths.     Bull.  61,  Minn. 
Agri.  Expt.  Stat,  pp.  148,  152,  153,  180,  183. 

1899.  DYAR,  H.  G.  —  Life-histories  of  the  New  York  slug  cater- 
pillars.   Jr.  N.  Y.  Ent.  Soc.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  61-67. 

1900.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  The  insects  to  which  the  name  "kissing- 
bug"  became  applied  during  the  summer  of  1899.     Bull.  22, 
n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  24-30. 

1901.  DICKERSON,  MARY  C.  —  Moths  and  butterflies,  pp.  143-153. 

1902.  ELIOT,  IDA  M.,  and  SOTJLE,  C.  G.  —  Caterpillars  and  their 
moths,  pp.  212-214. 

1902.  OSBORN,     H.  —  Poisonous    insects.     Reference    Handbook 
Med.  Sci.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  158-169. 

1903.  FERNALD,  C.  H.,  and  KIRKLAND,  A.  H.  — A  report  on  the  life 
history  and  habits  of  the  imported  brown-tail  moth,  pp.  1-93. 

1907.  TYZZER,  E.  E.  —  The  pathology  of  the  brown-tail  moth 
dermatitis.  2d  Ann.  Rept.  Supt.  Suppress.  Gipsy  and 
Brown-tail  Moths,  pp.  154-168. 

1910.  SNODGRASS,  R.  E.  —  The  anatomy  of  the  honey  bee.  Bull. 
18,  tech.  ser.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  74-83. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD 
INSECTS 

IT  is  often  advantageous  to  use  some  killing  substance 
that  will  penetrate  all  parts  of  a  building  and  reach  the 
smallest  cracks  and  crevices  to  which  insects  may  retreat. 
The  material  best  suited  to  such  a  requirement  is  some 
form  of  gas.  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  the  gas  from 
burning  sulfur  are  the  two  gases  most  used  for  fumigating 
buildings  to  destroy  insects.  Heated  air  would  be  an 
ideal  insecticide  if  it  were  more  easily  available. 

HYDROCYANIC  ACID   GAS 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  has  been  much  used  of  late 
years  against  insect  pests  of  dwellings,  barns,  granaries, 
elevators,  mills,  and  greenhouses.  It  has  also  been  exten- 
sively used  for  many  years  in  the  fumigation  of  citrus 
trees  in  California  and  Florida  to  control  scale  insects  and 
white  flies.  Nurserymen  fumigate  their  stock  with  hy- 
drocyanic acid  gas  to  destroy  any  pests  that  otherwise 
might  be  distributed  to  the  purchasers.  This  gas  is 
undoubtedly  a  very  effective  agent  for  the  destruction  of 
certain  household  insects  if  properly  used.  The  gas  was 
perhaps  first  used  in  1898  by  C.  L.  Marlatt  in  fumigating 
certain  leather-covered  furniture  infested  with  book  lice. 
441 


442  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

Since  that  time  the  gas  has  been  used  by  many  people  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  for  the  destruction  of 
various  insects.  The  author  has  treated  many  single 
rooms,  entire  dwelling-houses,  and  one  large  dormitory 
building  annually  for  several  years  with  this  gas.  In 
nearly  every  instance  the  treatment  has  been  satisfac- 
tory. Where  it  has  not  produced  the  desired  result,  it 
has  been  due  to  defective  calking  of  cracks  and  holes  or 
to  a  poor  quality  of  chemicals. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the  susceptibility  of 
insects  to  the  effects  of  this  gas  varies  considerably.  For 
example,  the  snout-beetles,  commonly  known  as  weevils, 
are  much  harder  to  kill  with  this  gas  than  moths,  butter- 
flies, or  bugs.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  soft- 
bodied  insects  succumb  more  readily  to  the  effects  of  the 
gas  than  do  the  hard-bodied  ones,  like  the  beetles.  For- 
tunately, most  of  the  abundant  and  serious  household  pests 
are  soft-bodied  insects  and,  therefore,  are  easily  overcome 
by  the  gas.  In  addition,  the  gas  will  kill  rats  and  mice, 
and  it  is  said  will  always  drive  them  out  where  they  will 
die  in  the  open. 

Moreover,  the  gas  is  not  inflammable  or  explosive.  In 
this  respect  it  differs  markedly  from  the  vapor  of  carbon 
bisulfide.  Again,  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  does  not  bleach 
the  colors  of  wall  papers,  draperies,  or  other  household 
fabrics.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  gas  does  not 
attack  metals  or  gilt  on  picture  frames  and  furniture. 
It  will,  however,  slightly  tarnish  nickel  fixtures  in  bath- 
rooms. The  effect  seems  to  be  very  superficial,  because 
it  is  easily  removed  by  wiping  the  fixtures  with  a  cloth. 
Indeed,  if  the  fixtures  are  covered  or  wrapped  with  towels, 
they  will  not  be  affected.  The  gas  has  no  deleterious  effect 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  443 

on  dry  food  products,  like  bread,  crackers,  cakes,  meats, 
and  similar  materials.  In  fact,  some  experiments  per- 
formed by  R.  Harcourt  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  showed  that  flour  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  made  just  as  good  and,  in  some  instances,  appar- 
ently better  bread  than  the  normal  flour.  On  the  other 
hand,  wet  food-stuffs  like  butter,  milk,  and  cream  are  liable 
to  absorb  some  of  the  gas  and  should  be  removed  before 
fumigation. 

The  poisonous  nature  of  the  gas.  —  There  is,  however, 
one  serious  drawback  to  the  general  use  of  this  gas.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  poisonous  substances  known.  It  is  a 
deadly  poison  to  all  forms  of  animal  life  including  man. 
A  few  full  inhalations  of  the  gas  will  produce  asphyxiation. 
Moreover,  the  potassium  cyanide,  from  which  the  gas  is 
derived,  is  a  most  virulent  poison.  A  very  little  of  it 
accidentally  eaten  will  produce  death.  This  poisonous 
quality  of  the  cyanide  and  of  the  gas  militates  against  the 
use  of  the  latter  as  a  universal  and  general  insecticide 
and  it  necessitates  great  care  and  precaution  in  handling 
the  materials. 

Notwithstanding  the  poisonous  nature  of  the  gas  and 
the  cyanide,  we  do  not  believe  any  careful,  thoughtful 
person  should  be  deterred  from  employing  this  method  of 
controlling  household  pests.  The  writer  has  used  over 
340  pounds  of  the  cyanide  and  fumigated  over  250  rooms 
every  year  for  several  years  without  the  slightest  accident 
to  any  one  connected  with  the  work.  The  nature  of  the 
gas  demands  calm,  thoughtful,  and  orderly  methods  of 
work. 

The  greatest  care  must  always  be  exercised  in  fumigating 
houses  or  rooms  that  are  being  occupied.  Before  fumiga- 


444 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


tion  a  house  should  be  vacated.  There  may  be  danger  in 
fumigating  one  house  in  a  solid  row  of  houses,  if  it  should 
happen  that  there  was  a  crack  in  the  walls  through  which 
the  gas  might  find  its  way.  It  also  follows  that  the  fumiga- 
tion of  one  room  in  a  house  might  endanger  the  occupants 
of  an  adjoining  room,  if  the  walls  between  the  two  rooms 
were  not  perfectly  tight.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  keep 
all  of  these  points  in  mind  and  to  do  the  work  deliberately 
and  thoughtfully. 
Generation  of  the  gas.  —  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  gener- 


FIG.  151.  —  Materials  used  in  fumigation. 

ated  from  the  salt,  potassium  cyanide,  by  treating  it  with 
sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  water.  Experiments  and 
experience  have  shown  that  the  cyanide  should  be  at 
least  98  per  cent  pure  in  order  to  give  satisfactory  results. 
Potassium  cyanide  is  presented  to  the  trade  in  varying 
grades  of  purity,  from  40  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  actual 
cyanide.  When  diluted,  a  useless  salt,  usually  sodium 
carbonate  or  sodium  chloride,  is  used,  which  is  of  no  value 
in  fumigation.  Indeed,  the  sodium  chloride  may  be  of 
positive  detriment.  The  purchaser  of  cyanide  should, 
therefore,  insist  on  its  being  at  least  98  per  cent  pure, 
and  it  ought  to  be  bought  for  not  more  than  forty  cents 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  445 

per  pound  retail  in  small  quantities.    In  large  quantities 
it  should  be  purchased  for  much  less. 

The  crude  form  of  sulfuric  acid  may  be  used.  It  is  a 
thickish  brown  liquid  and  should  test  about  1.84  sp.  gr.  or 
66°  Beaume.  It  should  not  cost  more  than  four  or  five 
cents  a  pound.  If  a  room  is  made  tight,  one  ounce  of 
the  cyanide  for  every  one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  space  has 
been  shown  to  be  sufficient.  In  cases  of  loosely  con- 
structed buildings  that  cannot  be  tightly  calked  double 
this  amount  may  be  used.  The  ingredients  (Fig.  151)  are 
combined  in  the  following  proportions  :  — 

Potassium  cyanide 1  ounce 

Commercial  sulfuric  acid 1  fluid  ounce 

Water 3  fluid  ounces 

Method  of  procedure.  —  It  will  be  simpler  to  take  a 
single  room  as  an  example.  Suppose  the  room  to  be  12  by 
15  by  8  feet.  It  will  contain  12  X  15  X  8,  or  1440  cubic 
feet.  For  convenience,  the  writer  always  works  on  the 
basis  of  complete  hundreds,  and  in  this  case  he  would 
work  on  the  basis  of  1500  cubic  feet,  preferring  to  err  on 
the  side  of  too  much  than  too  little.  The  room,  then,  would 
require  15  ounces  of  cyanide,  15  ounces  of  sulfuric  acid, 
and  45  ounces  of  water. 

First  of  all,  the  room  should  be  made  as  tight  as  possible 
by  stopping  all  the  larger  openings,  like  fireplaces  and 
chimney  flues,  with  old  rags  or  blankets.  Cracks  about 
windows  or  in  other  places  should  be  sealed  with  narrow 
strips  of  newspaper  thoroughly  soaked  in  water.  Strips 
of  newspaper  two  or  three  inches  wide,  that  have  been 
thoroughly  wet  may  be  applied  quickly  and  effect- 
ively over  the  cracks  around  the  window  sash  and 


446 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


elsewhere.  Such  strips  will  stick  closely  for  several  hours 
and  may  easily  be  removed  at  the  conclusion  of  the  work. 
Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  matter  of  tighten- 
ing the  room.  The  gas  will  so  quickly  dissipate  itself 
through  holes  and  cracks,  if  these  are  left  open,  that  its 
effectiveness  will  be  greatly  lessened,  if  not  entirely  lost. 
While  the  room  is  being  made  tight,  some  one  should 
measure  out  the  ingredients  according  to  the  formula 
already  given.  The  water  should  be  measured  and 

poured  first  into  a  stone 
jar  holding  at  least 
two  gallons.  The  jar 
should  be  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  room 
with  an  old  rug  or 
several  newspapers  un- 
der it  to  protect  the 
floor.  If  the  generat- 
ing jar  is  too  small,  the 
liquid  may  boil  over 
and  injure  the  floors 
and  rugs.  Careful  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  protecting  polished  floors,  valu- 
able rugs,  and  carpets.  The  latter  had  better  be  removed 
entirely.  If  the  room  is  a  large  one,  a  larger  jar,  or  two 
or  more  small  ones,  will  be  necessary  to  hold  the  requisite 
amount  of  cyanide,  acid,  and  water  in  order  to  prevent 
spattering. 

The  required  amount  of  sulfuric  acid  should  then  be 
poured  rather  slowly  into  the  water.  This  procedure 
must  never  be  reversed,  that  is,  the  acid  must  never  be 
poured  into  the  jar  first.  The  cyanide  should  be  weighed 


FIG.  152.  —  A  room  "strung"  for 
fumigation." 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  447 

and  put  in  a  paper  bag  beside  the  jar.  All  hats,  coats,  or 
other  articles  that  will  be  needed  before  the  work  is  over, 
should  be  removed  from  the  room.  When  everything  is 
ready,  the  operator  should  drop  the  bag  of  cyanide  gently 
into  the  jar,  holding  his  breath,  and  should  walk  quickly 
out  of  the  room.  The  steam-like  gas  does  not  arise 
immediately  under  these  conditions,  and  ample  time  is 
given  for  the  operator  to  walk  out  and  shut  the  door.  If 
preferred,  however,  the  paper  bag  may  be  suspended  by  a 
string  passing  through  a  screw  eye  in  the  ceiling  and  then 
through  the  keyhole  of  the  door.  This  is  called  stringing 
a  room  (Fig.  152).  In  this  case  the  bag  may  be  lowered 
from  the  outside  after  the  operator  has  left  the  room  and 
closed  the  door. 

The  writer  has  most  often  started  the  fumigation  toward 
evening  and  left  it  going  all  night,  opening  up  the  rooms 
in  the  morning.  The  work  can  be  done,  however,  at  any 
time  during  the  day  and  should  extend  over  a  period  of 
five  or  six  hours,  at  least.  Experiments  show  that  better 
results  will  be  obtained  in  a  temperature  of  70  degrees  F.  or 
above,  than  at  a  lower  temperature. 

At  the  close  of  the  operation,  the  windows  and  doors 
may  be  opened  from  the  outside.  In  the  course  of  two  or 
three  hours  the  gas  should  be  dissipated  enough  to  allow 
any  one  to  enter  the  room  without  danger.  The  odor  of 
the  gas  is  like  that  of  peach  kernels  and  is  easily  recognized. 
The  rooms  should  not  be  occupied  until  the  odor  has  gone. 

Fumigating  a  large  house.  —  The  fumigation  of  a  large 
house  is  simply  a  repetition  in  each  room  and  hall  of  the 
operations  already  described  for  a  single  room.  All  of  the 
rooms  should  be  made  tight  and  the  proper  amounts  of 
water  and  sulphuric  acid  should  be  measured  and  poured 


448 


HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 


into  the  jars  placed  in  each  room  with  the  cyanide  in  bags 
beside  them.  When  all  is  ready,  the  operator  should  go 
to  the  top  floor  and  work  downward,  because  the  gas  is 
lighter  than  air,  and  tends  to  rise. 

The  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
author  has  fumigated  a  large  dormitory  for  several  suc- 
cessive years  will  give  the  method  of  procedure  in  working 
with  an  entire  building  of  large  size :  — 

The  dormitory  building  in  which  the  work  has  been 
done  is  a  large  four-story  structure  in  the  form  of  an  E,  and 
contains,  all  told,  253  rooms  of  different  sizes  on  the  differ- 
ent floors.  It  takes  about  340  pounds  of  cyanide  (98  per 
cent  pure)  and  the  same  quantity  of  sulfuric  acid  to 
give  the  building  a  single  treatment,  not  including  the 
halls,  which  are  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  lye  and  water. 

Our  first  work  was  to  measure  the  rooms  and  compute 
the  cubic  contents  of  each.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
corner  rooms,  they  are  as  follows : 


FLOOR                 Cu.  FT. 

CYANIDE 

WATER  » 

ACID 

4       

1960 

11  Ib. 

1200  cc. 

600  cc. 

3       

2352 

nib. 

1440  cc. 

720  cc. 

2        

2352 

lilb. 

1440  cc. 

720  cc. 

1        

2744 

l}lb. 

1680  cc. 

840  cc. 

In  computing  the  amounts  of  cyanide,  water,  and  acid 
to  be  used,  we  always  raise  the  cubic  feet  in  any  given 
room  to  the  next  even  hundred.  For  example,  the  capac- 
ity of  each  room  on  the  fourth  floor,  which  is  1960  cubic 
feet,  was  considered  to  be  2000  cubic  feet. 

1  At  this  time  we  used  2  ounces  of  water  to  one  ounce  of  acid  and 
considered  30  cubic  centimeters  as  the  equivalent  of  1  ounce. 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  449 

In  the  fumigation,  we  attempted  to  treat  one-fifth  of 
the  building  each  successive  day.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  are  three  wings  and  a  long  front,  twice  as  long  as 
each  wing.  This  affords  a  natural  division  of  the  building 
into  five  parts,  each  division  containing  an  average  of  about 
50  rooms.  We  begin  on  one  wing  by  setting  several 
men  to  calking  the  windows  and  transoms  with  strips  of 
newspaper  about  three  inches  wide  and  thoroughly  soaked 
in  water.  The  paper  is  first  torn  into  strips  and  then 
placed  in  pans  of  water,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  until 
thoroughly  soaked.  These  wet  strips  are  then  quickly 
and  effectually  applied  to  the  top,  bottom,  and  sides  of  each 
window  and  transom  and  to  other  cracks  that  may  be 
found  in  the  rooms. 

At  the  same  time  two  men  are  placing  ordinary  china 
washbowls  in  each  room,  with  the  proper  amount  of  water 
and  acid  in  each.  Beside  each  bowl  is  also  placed  the 
proper  amount  of  cyanide  on  a  piece  of  newspaper  spread 
flat  on  the  floor. 

We  usually  try  to  begin  at  such  a  time  in  the  day  that 
the  rooms  in  one  wing  will  be  ready  for  fumigation  at 
about  6  P.M.  It  takes  the  force  enumerated  about  four 
or  five  hours  to  do  this,  so  that  we  should  begin  about 
1  P.M.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  time  varied  considerably 
owing  to  unforeseen  additional  labor.  When  everything  is 
ready,  two  men  go  to  the  top  floor,  and  beginning  at  one 
end  of  the  hall  pass  into  opposite  rooms,  one  man  on  each 
side  of  the  hall,  gather  the  edges  of  the  newspaper  in  the 
fingers  and  pour  the  cyanide  directly  into  the  acid  and 
water,  and  walk  quickly  out  of  the  door,  closing  the  door 
after  them.  There  is  little  danger,  apparently,  in  pouring 
the  cyanide  directly  into  the  acid  and  water,  if  one  does  it 
2o 


450  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

coolly  and  quickly  and  holds  the  breath  for  a  few  seconds 
until  the  door  is  reached.  The  chemical  reaction  is 
very  rapid  and  begins  immediately,  but  by  reaching 
the  hand  out  over  the  bowl  and  then  turning  the  head  a 
little  away  and  holding  the  breath  a  few  seconds,  we  have 
never  in  all  of  our  work  —  and  we  have  always  done  it 
that  way  —  experienced  the  slightest  annoyance  from  the 
gas.  By  passing  rapidly  down  the  hall  from  room  to 
room  and  floor  to  floor  two  men  will  set  the  whole  50  rooms 
off  in  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

Our  success  was  very  gratifying  indeed,  although  we  had 
some  complaints  of  bedbugs  in  a  few  rooms  late  in  the 
season.  This,  in  most  instances,  could  be  traced  to  some 
old  wooden  bedsteads,  that  had  not  been  fumigated,  and 
which  were  to  be  thrown  out  and  destroyed,  but  which 
were  used  afterwards  by  students  who,  coming  late  in  the 
session  and  finding  these  old  bedsteads,  utilized  them 
instead  of  buying  new  ones.  In  a  few  cases  it  was  prob- 
ably due  to  the  large  cracks  around  the  doors,  through 
which  the  gas  dissipated  itself  into  the  halls.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty  we  tried  a  plan  later  that  seemed  to  work 
very  well  and  proved  more  effective. 

Instead  of  calking  all  the  rooms  in  a  division  we  simply 
calked  the  rooms  on  the  top  floor  of  that  division  first 
and  then  fumigated  them  at  once.  As  the  operator 
would  close  the  door  of  a  room,  two  men,  who  stood  ready 
with  water-soaked  strips  of  paper,  would  quickly  seal  the 
cracks  around  the  edges  of  the  door  and  the  keyhole. 
These  two  men  would  calk  a  door  in  less  than  two  minutes 
and  the  rooms  must  have  been  made  as  tight  as  is  possible 
under  average  conditions.  All  of  the  rooms  on  that  floor 
were  treated  in  this  way,  after  which  the  force  passed  to 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  451 

the  floors  below  in  succession,  treating  each  in  the  same 
manner.  Although  it  took  about  one  hour  to  treat  each 
floor,  not  the  slightest  inconvenience  or  annoyance  was 
experienced  by  the  men  from  the  gas  on  the  floor  or  floors 
above.  There  is  another  advantage  in  this  method. 
Where  the  sun  shines  in  windows  the  strips  of  paper, 
although  we  used  three  thicknesses  and  soaked  them 
thoroughly,  were  apt  to  dry  and  curl  away  from  the  cracks 
if  left  too  long.  By  treating  a  floor  as  soon  as  ready,  we 
obviate  this  difficulty  and  get  the  full  effect  of  the  gas. 

Points  that  should  be  kept  in  mind.  —  It  is  claimed  that 
better  results  will  be  obtained  when  the  temperature  of 
the  rooms  is  maintained  at  70  degrees  F.  or  above  than  at 
50  degrees  or  below.  Most  insects  become  inactive  and 
torpid  at  temperatures  below  50  degrees  and  in  this  condi- 
tion are  apparently  less  easily  affected  by  the  gas.  For 
this  reason  the  fumigation  had  probably  best  be  done  in 
the  summer  if  possible. 

In  pouring  the  acid  great  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent it  from  spattering  on  the  hands  and  face. 

The  cyanide,  to  give  most  complete  chemical  reaction, 
should  be  broken  up  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  hickory 
nuts.  This  is  best  done  on  a  hard  brick  or  cement  pavement. 
The  hands  should  be  protected  with  gloves  and  washed  at  in- 
tervals to  remove  the  fine  particlesof  cyanide  from  the  skin. 

The  doors  of  the  house  under  treatment  should  be  locked 
and  conspicuous  signs  of  danger  should  be  placed  at  the 
main  entrances. 

The  work  should  be  done  by  a  calm,  thoughtful,  and 
careful  person  —  best  by  one  who  has  had  some  experience. 

The  gas  is  lighter  than  air  and  one  should  always  start 
in  the  rooms  at  the  top  of  the  house  and  work  down. 


452  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

Empty  the  contents  of  jars,  after  the  fumigation  is  over, 
in  the  sewer  or  other  safe  place.  The  jars  are  perfectly 
good  to  use  again  for  any  purpose  but,  of  course,  should  be 
thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  acid  and 
cyanide. 

CARBON   BISULFIDE 

The  vapor  of  carbon  bisulfide  was  probably  first  used 
to  kill  insects  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Since  that  time  its  use  for  this  purpose  has  steadily  in- 
creased until  now  it  is  counted  among  our  most  useful 
insecticides. 

Carbon  bisulfide  is  a  colorless  water-like  liquid  one- 
fourth  heavier  than  water.  When  pure,  it  has  a  not 
unpleasant  odor  and  will  not  stain  or  injure  the  finest 
fabrics.  The  commercial  product,  however,  has  a  slightly 
yellowish  tinge  and  a  most  unpleasant  odor,  due  to  its 
impurities.  The  commercial  product  is  apt  to  leave  a 
slight  residue  after  evaporation  and  therefore  usually 
leaves  a  stain  on  the  fabrics  which  it  touches.  Carbon 
bisulfide  evaporates  very  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  vapor,  which  is  2.63  times  heavier  than  air, 
settles  rapidly  downward.  Unfortunately,  it  is  both 
inflammable  and  explosive.  It  ignites  at  300  degrees  F., 
and  therefore  cannot  be  approached  with  a  lighted  lan- 
tern, lamp,  pipe,  cigar,  or  with  fire  in  any  form. 

Effect  of  vapor  on  man.  —  The  vapor  of  carbon  bisul- 
fide is  poisonous  to  man,  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  virulent  as 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  When  large  quantities  of  the  vapor 
are  inhaled  for  a  considerable  period,  it  produces  giddiness, 
followed  by  vomiting  and  finally  death  if  the  inhalation 
continues  long  enough.  Those  who  have  worked  with 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  453 

carbon  bisulfide  find  the  effects  of  continued  inhalation 
of  the  gas  to  be  about  as  follows :  the  unpleasant  odor 
first  disappears,  showing  that  the  sense  of  smell  becomes 
deadened ;  the  heart  beats  more  rapidly  and  all  of  the  senses 
become  gradually  deadened,  so  that  the  operator  does  not 
realize  that  anything  is  wrong  with  him;  before  this 
effect  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  be  dangerous  the  oper- 
ator becomes  giddy  and  loses  all  sense  of  pain.  When  this 
stage  is  reached,  the  operator  should  go  at  once  into  the 
fresh  air,  after  which  all  the  unpleasant  effects  will  soon 
disappear.  The  danger  of  inhaling  the  vapor  of  carbon 
bisulfide  is  very  slight  indeed  compared  with  that  of 
breathing  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  Really  there  is  very 
little  danger  in  the  use  of  this  liquid  because  circumstances 
under  which  one  could  inhale  enough  of  the  vapor  to  cause 
death  could  hardly  occur  unless  one  were  accidentally 
locked  in  a  room  for  some  time  with  a  quantity  of  the  gas. 
Its  insecticidal  power.  —  The  power  of  carbon  bisul- 
fide vapor  to  kill  insects  varies  with  the  species  of  insects, 
with  the  material  in  which  the  insects  are  living,  with  the 
tightness  of  the  box  or  room  in  which  the  gas  is  liberated, 
with  the  amount  of  gas  used,  and  with  the  period  of  time 
over  which  the  insects  are  exposed  to  the  gas.  For 
instance,  the  grain  moths  are  killed  more  easily  than  the 
grain  weevils.  Adult  insects  are  killed  more  easily  than 
the  larvae  and  pupae  in  their  burrows  in  grains  of  corn  and 
wheat.  Adult  insects  when  free  in  a  room  are  more  easily 
killed  than  when  burrowing  in  the  depths  of  bran,  flour,  or 
meal.  The  vapor  is  much  more  effective  in  a  tight  room 
than  in  one  with  many  openings.  Finally,  the  vapor  is 
apt  to  be  more  efficient  if  its  effect  is  continued  over  a 
long  period  than  over  a  short  one. 


454  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

Unfortunately,  the  vapor  does  not  penetrate  dry  cereals, 
like  flour,  bran,  and  meal,  as  thoroughly  as  it  ought,  to 
give  wholly  satisfactory  results.  Smith  found  that 
three  pounds  of  carbon  bisulfide  to  one  thousand  cubic 
feet  in  a  practically  air-tight  room  for  twenty-one 
hours  did  not  kill  over  70  per  cent  of  the  larva?  and 
pupa?  of  the  Angoumois  grain  moth  or  rice  weevil.  It 
did,  however,  kill  practically  all  of  the  adults. 

Again,  the  effect  of  the  vapor  on  flour  has  been  care- 
fully noted  by  Harcourt.  He  fumigated  a  sample  of 
flour  with  carbon  bisulfide  for  twenty-four  hours.  From 
this  sample  he  made  three  different  bakings,  varying 
from  two  to  two  and  one-half  months  apart.  In  each 
case  the  flour  treated  with  the  carbon  bisulfide  did  not 
produce  as  good  bread  as  the  untreated,  normal  wheat 
flour.  "The  loaves  were  smaller,  darker  in  color  and 
poorer  in  texture  and  in  general  appearance."  However, 
the  third  baking  was  the  best  and  showed  that  the  flour 
was  recovering  from  the  effects  of  the  vapor.  Probably 
all  effects  of  the  vapor  would  have  disappeared  in  time. 

It  is  generally  said  that  even  when  the  carbon  bisulfide 
is  poured  directly  upon  food-stuffs  their  edibility  is  not 
impaired.  All  trace  of  the  odor  disappears  in  a  short 
time  after  exposure  to  the  air.  Undoubtedly,  this  is 
generally  true  and  most  food-stuffs  are  not  injured.  De- 
spite the  objections  already  noted  to  the  use  of  carbon 
bisulfide,  it  still  remains  one  of  our  most  useful  insec- 
ticides for  certain  insects. 

Directions  for  its  use.  —  In  the  first  place,  the  room 
which  is  to  be  fumigated  must  be  as  near  air-tight  as 
possible.  If  it  is  full  of  openings  and  cracks,  satisfac- 
tory results  must  not  be  expected.  Whenever  practi- 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  455 

cable,  it  would  be  best  to  place  the  material  to  be 
fumigated  in  a  tight  box  or  barrel.  In  any  case,  two 
or  three  pounds  of  the  carbon  bisulfide  should  be  used 
to  every  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  fumiga- 
tion should  extend  over  a  period  of  at  least  forty-eight 
hours  and  the  temperature  should  be  from  65  to  75  degrees 
F.  The  larger  the  surface  of  the  liquid  there  is  exposed 
to  the  air  the  quicker  it  will  evaporate  and  the  greater 
volume  of  gas  there  will  be  in  the  room  at  a  given  time. 
Therefore,  the  liquid  should  be  exposed  in  wide  shallow 
pans  or  poured  directly  upon  the  material. 

One  of  the  most  convenient  ways  to  fumigate  peas, 
beans,  corn,  or  similar  seeds  is  to  place  them  in  a  tight 
box  or  barrel  and  fill  the  receptacle  to  within  eight  or 
ten  inches  of  the  top.  The  requisite  amount  of  carbon 
bisulfide  should  then  be  poured  into  a  wide  shallow  pan 
and  set  on  top  of  the  seed.  As  quickly  as  possible  the  top 
should  be  covered  air-tight.  Perhaps  several  thicknesses 
of  newspapers  or  building  paper  with  thick  blankets  over 
these  would  make  the  opening  tight.  The  fumigation 
should  be  allowed  to  extend  over  a  period  of  forty-eight 
hours  at  least  and  no  fire  in  any  form  should  be  brought 
near  the  receptacle  until  it  has  been  opened  and  well 
aired. 

SULFUR 

The  fumes  of  burning  sulfur,  sulfur  dioxide,  have 
long  been  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  insecticide ;  but  since 
the  fight  against  the  malarial  and  yellow  fever  mosquitoes 
this  gas  has  assumed  an  added  importance.  It  is  used 
almost  entirely  by  city  health  boards,  physicians,  and 
investigators  in  fumigating  rooms  and  buildings  to  destroy 


456  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

mosquitoes.  The  gas  is  produced  by  burning  flowers  of 
sulfur  or  lump  sulfur. 

There  are  certain  objections  to  the  use  of  sulfur  as  a 
fumigant  in  the  household.  The  gas  is  liable  to  bleach 
wall  papers  and  fabrics  and  to  tarnish  metals,  like  brass, 
copper,  silver,  and  gilt.  The  bleaching  effect  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  moisture  present  in  the  rooms.  It  is 
desirable,  when  fumigating  with  sulfur,  to  have  the  build- 
ings and  contents  as  dry  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  the 
formation  of  sulfuric  acid  which  causes  the  bleaching. 
Again,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  gas  affects  the  baking 
qualities  of  wheat  flour  at  least.  It  is  presumable  that  the 
fumes  would  also  affect  other  ground  cereals  used  for 
baking,  as  graham  flour  and  meal.  Harcourt  has  shown 
that  wheat  flour  fumigated  with  sulfur  dioxide  makes 
very  sticky,  fluid-like  dough  that  is  not  at  all  satisfactory. 
He  has  also  shown  that  the  loaves  baked  from  this  flour 
did  not  rise  well  and  were  smaller  in  volume  than  those 
from  the  untreated  flour.  Moreover,  sulfur  fumes, 
when  used  strong  enough  to  kill  insects  in  grain,  destroy 
the  germinating  power  of  the  seeds.  The  grain  is  not 
injured  for  purposes  of  food,  but  its  usefulness  for  planting 
is  destroyed.  This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  when 
using  sulfur  as  a  fumigant  in  the  household.  Corn,  wheat, 
or  other  grains  stored  for  seed  planting  purposes  should 
be  removed  and  not  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  fumes. 

Notwithstanding  these  objections,  sulfur  dioxide  is  now 
considered  the  most  reliable  of  all  fumigants  in  epidemics 
of  yellow  fever  and  in  all  cases  where  mosquitoes  are 
concerned. 

Howard  says  that  Rosenau  of  the  U.  S.  Public  Health 
and  Marine-Hospital  Service  has  made  a  rigid  series  of 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  457 

experimental  tests  with  sulfur  dioxide  and  concludes  that 
it  is  unexcelled  as  an  insecticide.  "He  shows  that  very 
dilute  atmospheres  of  the  gas  will  quickly  kill  mosquitoes, 
and  that  it  is  quite  as  efficacious  when  dry  as  when  moist. 
He  shows  that  it  has  surprising  power  of  penetrating 
through  clothing  and  fabrics,  and  that  it  will  kill  mos- 
quitoes even  when  hidden  under  four  layers  of  toweling  in 
one  hour's  time  and  with  very  dilute  proportions." 

Directions  for  use.  —  The  rooms  to  be  fumigated  are 
made  as  tight  as  possible  in  the  same  manner  as  described 
in  the  case  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  All  objects  of  a 
metallic  nature  should  be  removed  or  tightly  covered  with 
paper  or  coated  with  vaseline.  The  sulfur  should  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  each  1000  cubic  feet  of 
space.  If  the  room  is  rather  open,  this  quantity  may  be 
increased.  The  sulfur  may  be  burned  by  putting  it  in 
an  old  kettle,  baking  pan,  or  similar  dish  that  is  not  held 
together  with  solder,  and  setting  it  on  bricks  or  in  a  pan  of 
cold  ashes  to  keep  it  from  burning  the  floor.  A  teacupful 
of  wood  alcohol  poured  directly  into  two  pounds  of  sulfur 
and  then  lighted  will  serve  to  burn  the  sulfur  completely 
and  readily.  Sulfur  in  the  form  of  candles  is  for  sale  at 
most  drug  stores.  These  are  particularly  convenient 
because  they  burn  readily  when  lighted.  The  following 
directions  for  fumigating  with  sulfur  dioxide  given  out  by 
the  health  authorities  of  New  Orleans  cover  the  ground  so 
clearly  that  we  repeat  them  here :  — 

"  Remove  all  ornaments  of  metal,  such  as  brass,  copper, 
silver,  and  gilt  from  the  room  that  is  to  be  fumigated. 
All  objects  of  metallic  nature  which  cannot  be  removed 
can  be  protected  by  covering  the  objects  tightly  with  paper, 
or  with  a  thin  coating  of  vaseline  applied  with  a  brush. 


458  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

"  Remove  from  the  room  to  be  fumigated  all  fabric  ma- 
terials after  thoroughly  shaking.  Open  all  drawers  and 
doors  of  furniture  and  closets. 

"The  room  should  be  closed  and  made  as  tight  as  possible 
by  stopping  all  openings  in  chimney,  floor,  walls,  keyholes, 
and  cracks  near  windows  and  doors. 

"  Crevices  should  be  closed  by  pasting  strips  of  paper 
(old  newspapers)  over  them  with  a  paste  made  of  flour. 

"  The  sulfur  should  be  placed  in  an  iron  pot,  flat  skillet 
preferred,  and  then  placed  on*  bricks  in  a  tub  or  other 
convenient  water  receptacle  with  about  an  inch  of  water 
in  the  bottom.  This  is  a  precaution  which  must  be  taken 
to  guard  against  accidents,  as  the  sulfur  is  liable  to 
boil  over  and  set  fire  to  the  house. 

"  The  sulfur  is  readily  ignited  by  sprinkling  alcohol 
over  it  and  lighting  it. 

"  The  apartment  should  be  kept  closed  for  two  hours, 
and  then  opened  up  and  well  ventilated." 

FORMALDEHYDE   NOT  AN  INSECTICIDE 

Formaldehyde  is  a  gas  with  a  very  penetrating  odor, 
intensely  irritating  to  the  mucous  membranes  of  throat 
and  mouth,  but  not  a  poison  in  the  generally  accepted 
use  of  that  term.  It  is  an  excellent  disinfectant,  for  it  is 
fatal  to  those  minute  plants  known  as  bacteria  or  loosely 
as  "  germs."  The  gas  is  sold  in  the  form  of  an  aqueous 
solution  under  the  name  of  formalin,  which  is  supposed 
to  contain  40  per  cent  of  formaldehyde. 

Formaldehyde  is  particularly  desirable  as  a  fumigant 
for  disinfection  because  it  does  not  corrode  metallic  sub- 
stances with  the  exception  of  unpolished  steel  and  iron 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  459 

which  it  attacks  slightly.  The  gas  does  not  bleach  or 
injure  household  fabrics.  It  is  also  a  real  deodorant,  for  it 
acts  chemically  upon  the  gases  causing  the  odor,  and  forms 
others  without  any  smell. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  good  points  in  favor  of  formal- 
dehyde as  a  disinfectant  it  is  not  an  insecticide.  Although 
it  will  kill  those  minute  plants,  bacteria,  it  will  not  kill, 
to  any  extent,  those  small  animals,  insects.  There  are 
several  experiments  on  record  to  show  that  formaldehyde 
will  kill  very  few  insects  even  when  unusually  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  gas  are  liberated  in  an  air-tight  space. 

"  The  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service  report 
formaldehyde  as  not  possessing  insecticidal  properties 
against  mosquitoes."  C.  L.  Marlatt  proved  by  experi- 
ment that  even  though  the  gas  was  generated  to  three  or 
four  times  the  amount  necessary  for  disinfection  purposes  it 
only  killed  a  few  angoumois  grain  moths  and  apparently 
did  not  injure  bean  weevils  at  all.  C.  P.  Lounsbury, 
South  Africa,  reports  that  the  gas  did  not  kill  bedbugs 
although  it  apparently  killed  some  house-flies  and  aphids 
during  an  exposure  of  two  days.  Lampert  of  Germany 
found  that  formaldehyde  would  not  kill  insects.  M.  V. 
Slingerland  found  that  bedbugs  and  cockroaches  were  not 
killed  after  a  thorough  fumigation  for  twenty-four  hours. 

All  the  evidence  the  writer  can  find  seems  to  show  con- 
clusively that  formaldehyde  has  so  little  value  as  an  insec- 
ticide that  it  should  never  be  used  for  that  purpose. 


THE  USE  OF  HEAT  AGAINST  INSECTS 

Within  the  last  few  years  heat  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  in  mills  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  at 


460  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS 

least,  to  kill  mill  insects.  From  the  experiments  and  re- 
ports of  Dean  of  Kansas  it  would  seem  that  heat  is  a  very 
efficient  and  satisfactory  agent  for  destroying  insects 
infesting  grains  in  mills.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
it  would  not  be  efficient  for  killing  household  insects  if  it 
can  be  made  available.  The  temperatures  necessary  to 
kill  stored  grain  insects  are  not  high.  They  range  from 
118  degrees  to  125  degrees  or  above.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, if  it  would  be  possible  to  develop  even  these  degrees 
of  heat  in  most  households.  It  might  be  done  in  hotel 
kitchens  and  similar  places  where  there  are  large  boilers 
and  ranges.  In  ordinary  kitchens  the  range  might  be 
supplemented  by  one  or  two  oil-stoves  or  a  gas  heater 
and  the  temperature  raised  to  the  desired  point. 

Felt  has  shown  that  cockroaches  succumb  to  a  heat  of  120 
degrees.  A  temperature  of  at  least  120  degrees  should  be 
maintained  for  an  hour  or  more  to  give  it  time  to  penetrate 
to  the  insects.  In  the  case  of  mills  the  heat  is  maintained 
several  hours  to  allow  it  to  penetrate  all  the  infested  parts. 

Heat  is  undoubtedly  of  great  use  in  killing  powder-post 
beetles  in  furniture,  and  similarly  infested  wood.  The 
practical  use  of  heat  in  killing  household  insects  has  never 
been  investigated,  in  this  country,  at  least,  and  no  definite 
recommendations  can  be  made.  The  writer  would  sug- 
gest that  before  attempting  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
room  it  should  be  made  as  tight  as  possible  in  order  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  heat. 

REFERENCES  TO  ECONOMIC  LITERATURE  ON  FUMIGATION 
WITH  GASES 

1900.     LOUNSBURY,    C.    P.  —  Formaldehyde.     Kept.  Govt.  Ent. 
Cape  Good  Hope  for  1899,  p.  17. 


USE  OF  GASES  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  461 

1901.  MARLATT,  C.  L. —  The  insecticide  value  of  formaldehyde 
gas.     Bull  30,  n.s.,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  39. 

1902.  HINDS,    W.    E.  —  Carbon    bisulphide    as    an    insecticide. 
Farmers'  Bull.  145,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

1906.  LAMPERT,  K.  —  Formaldehyde  against  insects.  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Wissenschaftliche  Insektenbiologie,  Vol.  II,  p.  12. 

1906.  SLINGERLAND,  M.  V.  —  Formaldehyde  as  an  insecticide. 
Ent.  News,  Vol.  17,  p.  130. 

1906.  MARLATT,  C.  L.  — Sulphur  dioxide  as  a  insecticide.       Bull. 
60,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  139-153. 

1907.  HERRICK,  G.  W.  —  Fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  for 
bedbugs.     Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  39,  pp.  341-344. 

1909.  SMITH,  R.  I.  —  Cornweevils  and  other  grain  insects.     N.  C. 
Expt.  Stat.  Bull.,  203,  pp.  25-27  (Sulphur  dioxide). 

1910.  HOWARD,  L.  O.  —  Preventives  and  remedial    work  against 
mosquitoes.     Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Bull.  88,  pp.  35-37 
(Sulphur  dioxid). 

1911.  HARCOURT,  R.  —  Effect  of  mill  fumigants  upon  flour.     36th 
Ann.  Rept.  Ont.  Agri.  College,  pp.  87-92. 

1911.  CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.  —  The  lesser  grain-borer.  Bull.  96, 
Part  III,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  pp.  37-47. 

1911.  DEAN,  GEO.  A.  —  Heat  as  a  means  of  controlling  insects. 
Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  4,  pp.  142-159. 

1912.  FELT,  E.  P.  —  Experiments  with  heat  as  an  insecticide.     27th 
Rept.  State  Ent.,  New  York,  p.  93. 

1912.  GOODWIN,  W.  H.  —  Treatment  of  mills  with  high  tempera- 
tures. Ohio  Expt.  Stat.,  Bull.  234,  pp.  179-184. 

1912.  HOWARD,  L.  O.,  and  POPENOE,  C.  H.  —  Hydrocyanic  acid 
gas  against  household  insects.     Bu.  Ent.,  U.S.  Dept.   Agri., 
Circular  163. 

1913.  DEAN,  GEO.  A.  —  Further  data   on    heat   as   a   means  of 
controlling  mill  insects.     Jr.  EC.  Ent.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  40-55. 

1913.  DEAN,  GEO.  A.  —  Mill  and  stored-grain  insects.  Bull.  189, 
Kansas  Expt.  Stat.,  pp.  135-236. 


INDEX 


Acronycta  sp.,  432. 

Adoneta  spinuloides.  432. 

Aedes  calopus,  66,  82. 

Agramonte,  A.,  81. 

Aleurobius  farina,  287. 

Alum,  160. 

American  cockroach,  131,  135. 

Anderson,  J.  F.,  45. 

Angoumois  grain  moth,  239. 

Anobium  domesticum,  390. 

Anobium  hirtum,  391. 

Anobium  tessellatum,  389. 

Anopheles  maculipennis  =  A.  quadri- 
maculatus,  60,  61. 

Anopheles  punctipennis,  6;  life 
history  of,  60;  larvae  of,  62; 
pupae  of,  63;  adults  of,  65; 
breeding  places  of,  66. 

Anopheles  quadrimaculatua,  60,  61. 

Anthrax,  14. 

Anthrenus  acrophularice,  203. 

Ants,  164  ;  colony  of,  164 ; 
structure  of,  165 ;  queen  of,  164  ; 
workers,  males,  and  soldiers  of, 
165  ;  nests  of,  166 ;  life  history  of, 
170;  red,  174;  black,  176; 
pavement,  176;  carpenter,  177; 
methods  of  control,  178;  Ar- 
gentine, 183  ;  cow-killer,  438 ; 
velvet,  438 ;  sting  of,  438. 

Ants,  white,  364. 

Apanteles  carpatus,  194. 

Aphids,  169. 

Aradus  sp.,  116. 

Arcecerus  fasciculatus,  271. 

Argas  miniatus,  409. 

Argas  persicus,  408. 

Argopsylla  gallinacea,  149,  152. 

Atropos  divinatoria,  379. 


Atta  texana,  172. 

Attagenus  piceus,  210;    life  history 

of,  212 ;  control  of,  213. 
Automeris  io,  428. 

Bacilli,  typhoid,  13,  16,  17. 

Bacon,  272,  275. 

Bacteria  on  house-fly,  8. 

Baker,  C.  F.,  155. 

Banks,  Nathan,  286,    287,  322. 

Beans,  269. 

Bedbug,  108 ;  names  of,  108 ;  de- 
scription, 109 ;  mouth  parts  of, 
109;  dissemination  of,  110; 
food  of,  111;  habits  of,  112; 
bite  of,  113  ;  life  history  of,  114; 
relation  to  disease,  117;  control 
of,  118;  literature  of ,  122. 

Bed  nets,  96. 

Bee  sting,  437. 

Bellevoye,  M.  A.,  174. 

Beloatoma,  417. 

Benzine,  157,  275. 

Bfete  rouge,  318. 

Bin  for  manure  22. 

Bishopp,  F.  C.,  43. 

Biting  house-fly,  35,  36,  41. 

"Black-beetle,"  131. 

Black-flies,  335 ;  injury  by,  337 ; 
life  history  of,  341 ;  control  of, 
344. 

Blackwall.  J.,  400. 

Blanchard,  R.,  426. 

Blatta  orientalis,  136. 

Blister  beetles,  436. 

Blow-flies,    49. 

Blue-bottle  flies,  35,  49,  50. 

Body-louse,  311. 

Book-louse,  379. 


463 


464 


INDEX 


Borax  for  roaches,  142. 
Bot-flies,  426. 
Bradley,  J.  C.,  321,  324. 
Brown-tail  moth,  427,  432  ;  nettling 

hairs    of,    434;     caterpillars    of, 

433;    rash  of,  435. 
Bruchus  obtectus,  269. 
Bruchus  pisorum,  269. 
Brues,  C.  T.,  45. 
Bryobia  pratensis,  352. 
Buck,  A.  E.,  338. 
Buck  moth,  429. 
"Buffalo    moth,"    203;    nature  of, 

204  ;  life  history  of,  205 ;   control 

of,  206. 
Buhach,  28,  41,  139,  156,  157,  159, 

220. 

.Bull,  A.  M.,  26. 
Butler,  E.  A.,  133. 

Cacao  beans,  271. 

Cadelle,  232. 

Calandra  granaria,  258. 

Calandra  oryzce,  261. 

Cattiphora  erythrocephala,  49. 

Campagna,  74. 

Camphor,  95,  102,  160. 

Camphor  balls,  198. 

Camponotus    pennsylvanicus,     174, 

177. 

Cannibal  bug,  419. 
Cantharis  vesicatoria,  436. 
Cantharadin,  436. 
Carbolic  acid,  28,  95,  286. 
Carbon  bisulphide,   138,   182,   185, 

452. 

Carpets,  189. 
Carpet  beetles,  203,  210. 
Carriers,  chronic,  17. 
Carroll,  James,  81. 
Case-making  clothes  moth,  189. 
Castellani,  A.,  362,  400,  413. 
Castor-oil  plant,  103. 
Cats,  156,  159,  160. 
Cedar  oil,  102. 
Centipede,  house,  356;    habits   of, 

356,    appearance   of,   357 ;     food 

of,  358;    control  of,  360. 


Centipedes,  poisonous,  411. 
Ceratophyllus   fasciatus,  147,    148, 

152. 

Ceratopogon  guttipennis,   332. 
Ceratopogon  stellifer,  329. 
Chalmers,  A.  J.,  362,  400,  413. 
Cheese,  125,  280,  288,  289. 
Cheese   skipper,   288;    life   history 

of,  290  ;    control  of,  291 ;    litera- 
ture of,  292. 
Chiggers,  317,  318,  347. 
Chigoe,  149,  426. 
Chinaberry  trees,  104. 
Chique,  426. 
Chittenden,  F.  H.,  227,  233,  238, 

248,  271,  298,  394. 
Chloride  of  lime,  20. 
Chrysomyia  macellaria  =  Compsom- 

yia  macellaria,  424. 
Cicada,  17-year,  418. 
Cigarette  beetle,  292,  293. 
Cimex  lectularius,  108. 
Cimex  rotundatus,  1 17. 
Citronella  oil,  102. 
Closet,  modern,  24. 
Clothes   moths,  189 ;    case-making, 

189,    192;     webbing,    194,    195; 

tapestry,   197;    control  of,   198; 

literature  of,  202. 
Clothilla  pulsatoria,   381. 
Clover   mite,  352 ;    life  history  of, 

354;    control  of,  354. 
Cluster-fly,  38 ;   appearance  of,  38  ; 

habits  of,  39  ;   life  history  of,  40  ; 

control  of,  40. 
Cockerell,  T.  D.  A.,  267. 
Cockroaches,  124  ;  injuries  of,  124  ; 

habits,  127;    dissemination,  129; 

life   history,    132;     control,    138, 

139  ;    literature  of,  143. 
Coffee,  271. 
Cold  storage,  201. 
Coleoptera,  435. 
Comstock,  J.  H.,  265,  297,  419. 
Conjunctivitis,  14. 
Conorhinus  sanguisugus,  422. 
Conradi,  A.  F.,  345. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  118,  180. 


INDEX 


465 


Corson,  E.  R.,  404. 

Crab  louse,  314. 

Creolin,  156. 

Crickets,  221. 

Croton-bug,  129, 131,  134. 

Ctenocephalus  canis,    146. 

Cuba,  81. 

Culex     pipiens,     55 ;      eggs,     57 ; 

larvae,  57  ;    pupae,  58 ;   adult,  59. 
Culicide,  Mims,  29,  95. 
Cyanide    of   potassium,    179,    443, 

444. 

Ball,  W.  H.,  39. 

Dalmatian  powder,  94. 

Davidson,  A.,  421. 

Davis,  J.  J.,  21. 

Davis,  G.  C.,  387. 

Dean,  Geo.  A.,  220,  460. 

Death-watch,  389. 

Derham,  Rev.  W.,  380. 

Dermacentor  venustus,  407. 

Dermatobia  cyaniventris,  426. 

Dermatobia  noxialis,  426. 

Dermestes  lardarius,  272. 

Dermestes  vulpinus,  273. 

Diamphidia  simplex,  436. 

Disease,  13,  45,  47,  51,  117,  153, 
313. 

Doane,  R.  W.,  147. 

Dogs,  156,  158,  159. 

Dragon-flies,  415. 

Drainage  for  mosquitoes,  84. 

Drosophila  amcena,  265. 

Drosophila  ampelophila,  264,  265. 

Drosophila  funebris,  264. 

Drosophila  graminum,  264. 

Drosophila  transversa,  264. 

Drug-store  beetle,  295 ;  life  history 
of,  296;  control  of,  298;  litera- 
ture of,  299. 

Ear  of  cricket,  225. 

Earwigs,  415. 

Echocerus  cornutus,  270. 

Ectobia  germanica,  124 ;  life  history 

of,  134. 

Empusa  americana,  41. 
2H 


Enneacanthus.  88. 

Ephestia   kuhniella,    242;     injuries 

of,    244;     life    history    of,    245; 

control  of,  246. 
Esten  and  Mason,  8. 
Eucalyptus  trees,  102,  103. 
Euclea  chloris,  432. 
Euclea  indetermina,  432. 
Euclea  pcenulata,  432. 
Euclea  querceti,  432. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhcea,  432. 
Eurypelma  hentzi,  401. 

Feathers,  272. 

Felt,  E.  P.,  393,  460. 

Felting,  210. 

Fernald,  C.  H.,  191. 

Fever,  yellow,  55,  66,  67,  80,  81, 
104  ;  tertian,  77 ;  quartan,  77  ; 
malignant,  77  ;  Obermeyer's  re- 
lapsing, 117. 

Fielde,  Adele  M.,  160. 

Finlay,  Carlos,  80. 

Firebrat,  219. 

Fish-moths,  214,  219. 

Fish  vs.  mosquitoes,  85. 

Fitch,  Asa,  253. 

Flannel-moth,  427. 

Fleas,  144;  structure  of,  144; 
mouth  parts  of,  145 ;  life  history 
of,  149 ;  eggs  of,  150 ;  relation 
to  disease,  153 ;  control  of,  155 ; 
literature  of,  161. 

Fletcher,  James,  191,  394. 

Flies  in  houses,  35. 

Flour-beetles,  248,  251,  270. 

Food,  protection  of,  31. 

Forbes,  S.  A.,  20,  21,  370. 

Formaldehyde,  29,  458. 

Frost,  W.  H.,  45. 

Fruit-flies,  264. 

Fruit,  canned,  268. 

Fumigation  for  mosquitoes,  93,  94, 
95 ;  for  cockroaches,  138. 

Gambusia  affinis,  88. 
Garbage  can  trap,  25. 
Carman,  H.,  216,  220. 


466 


INDEX 


Caster  of  ants,  166. 
German  cockroach,  131,  134. 
Girault,  A.  A.,  12,  114. 
Glyciphagus  robustus,  286. 
Goldberger,  J.,  348. 
Goldfish,  87. 
Graham-Smith,  9. 
Granary  weevil,  258. 
Grocer's  itch,  281,  286. 
Gryllus  domesticus,  221,  223. 
Gryllus  luctuosus,  223. 

Hcematobia  serrala,  37. 

Hagen,  H,  210,  216. 

Hag-moth,  431. 

Halisidota  caryce,  432. 

Ham,  272,  275,  280,  289. 

Ham  beetle,  277. 

Hamilton,  John,  320. 

Harcourt,   R.,  454,  456. 

Hargitt,  C.  W.,  359. 

Harvest  mites,  317. 

Head  louse,  309. 

Heat,  459. 

Hemerocampa  leucostigma,  432. 

Hemileuca  maia,  429. 

Herms,  W.  B.,  21. 

Heustis,  Caroline  E.,  274. 

Hewitt,  C.  Gordon,  10,  46,  48,  49. 

Hinds,  W.  E.(  172. 

Hine,  J.  S.,  40. 

Hodge,  C.  F.,  10,  25. 

Homalomyia  canicularis,  47 ;  de- 
scription of,  48 ;  larvse  of,  48 ; 
literature  of,  53. 

Honey-dew,  169. 

Hooke,  R.,  218. 

Horn,  Geo.  H.,  274. 

Hornet,  bald-faced,  326. 

Hornets,  1 1 ;   sting  of,  439. 

Hour-glass  spider,  403. 

House-fly,  1 ;  life  history  of,  3 ; 
maggot  of,  4 ;  puparium,  5 ; 
breeding  places  of,  6  ;  foot  of,  7  ; 
bacteria  carried  by,  8 ;  mouth 
parts  of,  9 ;  enemies  of,  11; 
relation  to  disease,  13. 

House-fly,  the  lesser,  47. 


Howard,  L.  O.,  3,  14,  18,  19,  35,  43, 
46,  90,  130,  146,  151,  160,  200, 
201,  206,  283,  419,  420,  456. 

Hubbard,  H.  G.,  360. 

Hunter,  W.  D.,  172. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  441 ;  for  bed- 
bugs, 120  ;  for  roaches,  138  ;  for 
carpet  beetles,  209 ;  for  mites,  286. 

Hymenoptera,  437. 

Hyperaemus  tinice,  194. 

Hypoderma  bovis,  426. 

Hypoderma  lineata,  426. 

Hypopus,  of  mites,  282. 

Indian-meal  moth,  252. 

Infant  mortality,  14. 

Insectoline,  142. 

lo  moth,  428. 

Iridomyrmex   humilis,    173. 

Iron  sulfate,  21. 

Itch,  300 ;    history  of,  301 ;    cause 

of,  302  ;  life  history  of  mite,  303  ; 

contagiousness,  304 ;    control  of, 

305;    Norway,   306. 
Ixodes  unipunctata,  408. 

Jiggers,  149,  426. 
Johannsen,  O.  A.,  35. 
Johnson,  W.  G.,  245,  249,  372. 

Kala-azar,  117. 

Kalm,  Peter,  108,  177,  190. 

Kellogg,  V.  L.,  50,  135,  290,  297. 

Kessler,  H.  F.,  291. 

Kissing  bugs,  418. 

Lady-bird  beetle,  205. 
Laemopsylla  cheopis,  148,  152. 
Lagoa  crispata,  427. 
Lampert,  K.,  459. 
Larder  beetle,  273. 
Lasioderma    serricorne,    292. 
Latrodectus   mactans,   403. 
Latrodectus  13-guttatus,  404. 
Lazear,  Jesse  W.,  81. 
LeConte,  J.  L.,  420,  422. 
Lepidocyrtus  americanus,  378. 
Lepisma  domestica,  217. 


INDEX 


467 


Lepisma   saccharina,    214. 

Leprosy,   14,   155. 

Leptus  autumnalis,   318. 

Leptus  irritans,  318. 

Lewis,  R.  H.,  125. 

Lice    on    man,    307 ;     head,    309 ; 

body,  311;    crab,  314;    control 

of,  315. 

Lime,  chloride,  20. 
Lime,  slaked,  21. 
Lintner,  J.  A.,  40,  210,  222,  267, 

359,  381,  384,  420,  431. 
Lithobius,  413. 
Lounsbury,  C.  P.,  459. 
Lucilia  ccesar,  49. 
Lugger,  Otto,  330,  344. 
Lycosa  tarentula,  401. 
Lycosa  viridicola,  401. 
Lyctidce,  386. 
Lyctus    striatus  =  Lyctus     linearis, 

387. 

Malaria,  76. 

Malarial  parasite,  76;    history  of, 

in   man,   77 ;    in   mosquito,   78 ; 

number  of,  in  blood,  79. 
"Malleh,"408. 
Manure,     20 ;      storage     of,     21 ; 

kerosene    for,    20 ;     chloride    of 

lime  for,  20 ;  iron  sulfate  for,  21. 
Marlatt,  C.  L.,  114,  133,  378,  423, 

459. 

McCook   Henry  C.,  405. 
McCoy,  G.  W.,  147. 
Meal-worms,  227,  229. 
Mediterranean      flour-moth.      See 

Ephestia  Kiihniella,  242. 
Megalopyge  opercularis,  432. 
Melanolestes  abdomincdis,  421. 
Malanolestes  picipes,  419. 
Meshes  in  screens,  99,  105. 
"Miana"  bug,  408. 
Miasma,  101. 

Milk  and  the  house-fly,  15. 
Mitchell,  Evelyn  G.,  69,  102. 
Mites,     cheese,    280;     itch,    300; 

harvest,  317;    predaceous,  347; 

clover,  352. 


Mitzmain,  M.  B.,  145,  151,  152. 

Monoleuca  semifascia,  432. 

Monomorium  minimum,  174,  176. 

Monomorium  pharaonis,  173,  174. 

Morgan,  H.  A.,  392. 

Morley,  Claude,  391. 

Mosquitoes,  54;  life  histories,  55, 
60,  61,  67;  malarial,  54,  61,  62; 
yellow  fever,  66,  67 ;  control  of, 
84,  85,  86;  relation  to  disease, 
54,  60,  66,  70,  71 ;  bite  of,  70 ; 
literature  of,  82,  83;  drainage 
for,  84;  fish  vs.,  85;  oil  for,  89; 
fumigation  for,  93,  94,  95; 
rules  for  prevention  of,  104,  105. 

Moth-flies,  50. 

Murtfeldt,  Mary  E.,  289,  359. 

Musca  domestica,  1,  3,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 
10. 

Muscina  assimilis,  37. 

Muscina  stabulans,  37,  46;  life 
history  of,  46 ;  relation  to  disease, 
47;  eggs  of,  46;  literature  of, 
52. 

Music  of  crickets,  224. 

Mygalidce,  405. 

Myiospila  meditabunda,  37. 

Naphthaline,  159,  181. 

Natada  nasoni,  432. 

Necrobia  rufipes,  277 ;  life  history 
of,  277 ;  distribution  and  in- 
juries, 278. 

Needham,  J.  G.,  337. 

Nepidoe,  417. 

Nets,  bed,  96,  97. 

Nettling  caterpillars,  427. 

Newell,  W.,  181,  183,  185. 

Newstead,  Robert,  42. 

Nickels.  L.  J.,  186. 

Night  air,  101. 

Norman,  W.  W.,  413. 

Notonectidce,  416. 

Obermeyer's  relapsing  fever,    117. 
(Estrus  hominia,  426. 
Oil,  for  mosquitoes,  89;    kinds  to 
use,    89;    amount    to    use,    90; 


468 


INDEX 


how  to  apply,  90;  of  citronella, 
102;  of  cedar,  102;  of  penny- 
royal, 157. 

Ootheca  of  cockroach,  132. 

Ophion,  437. 

Oriental  cockroach,  132,  136. 

Ormerod,  Eleanor,  235. 

Ornithodoros  turicata,  408. 

Osborn,  Herbert,  44. 

Packard,  A.  S.,  219,  339. 

Packardia  geminata,  432. 

Paper,  tanglefoot,  30,  157. 

Parasites  of  house-fly,  12. 

Peas,  269. 

Pedicel  of  ants,  166. 

Pediculoides  ventricosus,  347  ;  injury 
of,  349  ;  life  history  of,  349  ;  con- 
trol of,  350  ;  literature  of,  352. 

Pediculus  corporis,  311. 

Pediculus  humanus,  309. 

Pennyroyal,  oil  of,  157. 

Pergande,  Theodore,  175,  401. 

Pericoma  calif ornica,  50,  51. 

Periplaneta  americana,  133,  135. 

Periplaneta  austraiasice,    137. 

Perkins,  G.  H.,  175. 

Persian  insect  powder,  28,  94. 

Pettit,  R.  H.,  387. 

Phidippus  morsitans,  405. 

Phillips,  R.  O.,  341. 

Phlebotomus  fever,  51. 

Phlebotomus  papatasii,  51. 

Phobetron  pithecium,  431. 

Phorbia  sp.,  36. 

Phthirius  pubis,  314. 

Piophila  casei,  288.  See  cheese 
skipper. 

Plague,  153. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  141. 

Plodia  interpunctella,  252. 

Plumacher,  Capt.  E.  H.,  103. 

Pogonomyrmex  barbatus  molefaciens, 
173. 

Pogonomyrmex  occidentalis,  172. 

Poisonous  insects,  398. 

Pollenia  rudis,  38;  habits  of,  39; 
life  history  of ,  40  ;  control  of ,  41. 


Popenoe,  C.  H.,  253. 

Porches,  101. 

Potash,    bichromate,   29. 

Powder,  Persian  insect,  28. 

Powder-post  beetles,  386. 

Pratt,  F.  C.,  331,  332. 

Privy,  open,  23. 

Proboscis  of  house-fly,  9. 

Psocids,  379 ;  food  and  habits  of, 
381 ;  invasions  by,  382  ;  control 
of,  384  ;  literature  of,  385. 

Psychoda  minuta,  50. 

Ptilinus  pectinicornis,  392. 

Ptilinus  ruficornis.  393. 

Ptinidce,  392,  393. 

Ptinusfur,  393,  394. 

Pulex  irritans,  144,  146. 

Pulvilli  of  house-fly,  7. 

Punkies,  329  ;  life  history  of,  332  ; 
breeding  places  of,  334  ;  control 
of,  334  ;  literature  of,  334. 

Pyralis  farinalis,  256. 

Pyrethrum,  28,  41,  93,  94,  139,  141. 

Quayle,  102. 
Quemados,  81. 

Railliet,  A.,  310. 

Raisins,  253. 

Rasahus  biguttatus,  421. 

Rasahus  thoracicus,  421. 

Raspberries,  266. 

Read,  Albert  N.,  201. 

Redbugs,  317,  319;    hosts  of,  319; 

injuries  of,  320 ;     life  history  of, 

322  ;    control  of,  323. 
Reduvius  personatus,  419. 
Reed,  Walter  C.,  80. 
Repellants    for    mosquitoes,     102, 

103. 

Rhagoletis  pomonella,  265. 
Rhynchoprion  penetrans,  149,  426. 
Rice  weevil,  261. 
Ricketts,  H.  T.,  313. 
Riley,  C.  V.,  40,  133,  191,  196,  210, 

279,  289,  338,  419,  427. 
Riley,  W.  A.,  3. 
Roach,  87. 


INDEX 


Rosenau,  M.  J.,  45. 

Ross,  Ronald,  72,  76,  79,  98. 

Saddle-back  caterpillar,  430. 

Sambon  and  Low,  74. 

Sanders,  G.  E.,  12. 

Sanderson,  E.  D.,  345. 

Sarcoptes  scabiei  var.  hominis,  300 

Saw-toothed  grain-beetle,  236. 

Scaptomyza,  265. 

Schamberg,  J.  F.,  348. 

Scolopendra  gigantea,  412. 

Scolopendra  heros,  412. 

Scolopendra  morsitans,  412,  413. 

Scolopendridce,  411. 

Scorpions,     360;     sting    of,    361; 

poison  of,  361,  362;     control  of, 

363. 

Screens,  31,  98,  99. 
Screw-worm  fly,  425. 
Scutigera  forceps,  356. 
Seal,  W.  P.,  88. 
Seiss,  C.  F.,  132. 
Sheppard,  P.  A.,  45. 
Shiner,  golden,  87,  89. 
Sibine  stimulea,  430. 
Silvanus  frumentarius,  238. 
Silvanus  surinamensis,  236,  435. 
Silver-fish,  215,  216. 
Simpson,  C.  B.,  374. 
Simulium  hirtipes,  337. 
Simulium  meridionale,  336. 
Simulium  pecuarum,  336. 
Simulium  pictipes,  341. 
Simulium  venustum,  335,  337. 
Simulium  vittatum,  337. 
Sinclair,  F.  G.,  413. 
Sitodrepa  panicea,  295. 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  196,  239. 
Skinner,  Henry,   159. 
Skins,  273. 
Skipper,  cheese,  288. 
Sleeping  rooms,  101. 
Slingerland,  M.  V.,  234,  459. 
Smith,  Herbert,  128,  402. 
Smith,  J.  B.,  103. 
Snout-moth,  256. 
Snow,  Francis,  425. 


Solenopsis  molesta,  174,  178. 

Solpugids,  406,  409. 

Soper,  Dr.  Geo.  A.,  8. 

Spanish  fly,  436. 

Spiders,  399;  venom  of,  399; 
bites  of,  399  ;  fang  of,  399. 

Spider-beetle,  393. 

Spring-tails,  376 ;  the  name  of,  376  ; 
injuries  of,  377 ;  control  of,  378. 

Stable-fly,  35,  46. 

Stachelbeerkrankheit,  318. 

Stegomyia  fasciata,  66. 

Stiles,  C.  W.,  315. 

Sting  of  bee,  437. 

Stokes,  Alfred  C.,  382. 

Stomoxys  calcitrans,  41 ;  life  history 
of,  41 ;  mouth  parts,  42  ;  eggs  of , 
43  ;  bite  of,  44 ;  relation  to  dis- 
ease, 45. 

Stringing  a  room,  446. 

Sugar,  281. 

Sulfate  of  iron,  21. 

Sulfur,  94,  95,  119,  209,  455,  456, 
457. 

Sunfish,  89. 

Tabardillo,  313. 

TcEnia  canina,  155. 

Tanglefoot  paper,  30. 

Tapestry  moth,    197. 

Tarantula,  401. 

Tarantula  dance,  402. 

Tartar  emetic,  181. 

Taschenberg,  E.  L.,  47,  238. 

Tenebrio  molitor,  229. 

Tenebrio  obscurus,  227. 

Tenebroides  mauritanicus,  232. 

Termes  flavipcs,  364. 

Termites,    364;     colony    of,    365; 

castes  of,  365  ;    injuries  by,  367  ; 

control  of,  373. 

Tetramorium  cespitum,  174,  176. 
Texas  fever,  73. 
Thermobia  furnorum,  219. 
Thysanura,  219. 
Tick  fever,  73. 
Ticks,    cattle,   407 ;    spotted-fever, 

407;    chicken,  409. 


470 


INDEX 


Tinea  pellionella,  189. 

Tineidce,  190. 

Tineola  biselliella,  191,  194. 

Tlalsahuate,  318. 

Tomato  worm,  427. 

Top-minnow,  88. 

Traps,    fly,    25;     Minnesota,    26; 

for  roaches,  139,  140. 
Tribolium  confusum,  248. 
Tribolium  ferrugineum,  251. 
Trichinella  spiralis,   72. 
Trichophaga  tapetzella,  191,  197. 
Trombidium  holosericeum,  318. 
Turpentine,  spirits  of,  118. 
Tyroglyphus  americanus,  287. 
Tyroglyphus  farina,  280,  283,  287. 
Tyroglyphus  longior,  280,  283,  287. 
Tyroglyphus  siro,  287. 
Typhoid  fever,  16. 
Typhus  fever,  313. 
Tyzzer,  E.  E.,  434. 

Underwood,  W.  L.,  87. 
Urticating  caterpillars,  427. 

Van  Dine,  D.  L.,  158. 
Verjbitski,  D.  J.,  153. 


Verruga,  51. 
Vespa  germanica,  325. 
Vespa  maculata,  325. 
Vinegar,  266. 

Walckenaer,  Baron,  400. 

Walsh,  Benj.  D.,  12,  328. 

Walsingham,  Ford,  191. 

Warbles,  426. 

Washburn,  F.  L.,  142,  200. 

Wasps,  325. 

Wastes,  disposal  of,  30. 

Webbing  clothes  moths,  194. 

Webster,  F.  M.,  196,  235,  338,  347. 

Westwood,  J.  O.,  328,  392. 

Weevils,  grain,  237,  258,  261. 

Wheeler,  W.  M.,  177. 

Wilder,  R.  M.,  313. 

Window  screens,  98,  99. 

Woodworth,  C.  W.,  183,  186. 

Xestobium  tessellatum= Anobium  tes- 
sellatum,  389. 

Yellow  fever,  66,  67,  80,  81,   104, 

105. 
Yellow-jackets,  326. 


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enthusiast."  —  Tlie  Nation. 

"  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  state  that  Bailey's  new  work 
is  the  best  cyclopedia  obtainable  for  all  who  are  con- 
nected, either  remotely  or  intimately,  as  amateurs  or 
professionals,  with  horticultural  pursuits.  It  is  the  best 
for  the  student  of  botany  who  is  investigating  the  sub- 
ject in  a  purely  scientific  way ;  best  for  the  commercial 
grower  who  likes  to  be  well  informed  on  matters  in 
general  and  his  own  trade  in  particular,  and  best  for  the 
other  sort  of  commercial  grower,  who  does  not  bother 
himself  particularly  about  hunting  for  any  information 
except  such  as  will  give  him  immediate  help  in  produc- 
ing a  better  crop." —  The  Florists'1  Review. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


b.UMED.  Llfi, 

101 

4  R£fl 


JUI101W 

ML  14  R£fl 


MMUB1 

MAR    7 


RE(JD 


OCT  111975 


AR  29 


Form  L9-20W-1 1,'54  ( 8525s4 ) 444 


•Jill 


!£fi£!£fi  "EGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000766563 


